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AN 



EPITOME 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



.LONDON : 

Spottiswoode and Shaw, 
New-street- Square. 



AN 



EPITOME 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 



*&& earliest ^txioH 



THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848. 



TOGETHER WITH 



HISTORICAL CHARTS, 



AN EXTENSIVE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

ON THE SYSTEM OF 

grey's memoria technica. 



BY A/HARDING. 



LONDON: 
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 

PATERNOSTER-ROW. 

1848. 






v» 



PREFACE, 



The following little work was suggested 
by seeing a very small Epitome, which 
had been successfully used by the late 
Miss Lockyer of Hendon, the periods and 
chart's of which are, with the full per- 
mission of her friends, altered, enlarged, 
and adapted to the present volume, which, 
it is anxiously hoped, will not be found 
unworthy of its talented but very brief 
predecessor. 

About 770 Questions, on facts connected 
with the several histories, are added. A 
Chronological Table, with dates as nearly 
as possible according to Hales, and an 
abbreviation of Grey's System, has, with 
much care and labour, been compiled and 
appended. The circumstances and facts 



VI PREFACE. 

noticed are those that appear most essen- 
tially connected with a knowledge of His- 
tory. 

The practical experience of many years 
has served to convince the writer that all 
the most competent and attentive instruc- 
tors can do for their pupils is, to lay a solid 
foundation for future excellence by giving 
them such general information as shall 
awaken a desire to pursue further reading 
and inquiry ; and impress on them the 
value and importance of a well-informed 
mind and rightly-directed taste. 

To impart a thorough knowledge of His- 
tory would occupy more time than can be 
given to any one branch of study during 
the few years devoted to education, in 
which so much is to be done, and so much 
more attempted. Hence the writer has 
thought that a work, in itself nothing more 
than an epitome, containing such facts, 
both ancient and modern, as will tend to 
awaken an interest in History, and induce 
to further research, yet differing from the 
general cast of even good school books, 
accompanied by an extensive chronological 



PREFACE. Vll 

table, might be found useful and instruc- 
tive, and of itself, if well understood, re- 
deem the pupil from ignorance on this 
important branch of study. 

With these views it is humbly and re- 
spectfully offered to the Public. 

A. H. 



Brixton Oval, June, 1848. 



CONTENTS, 



Page 

Ancient History - - - 2 

Middle Ages - - - - 5 

Modern History 7 



Asia - 14 

Assyria - - - - - 15 

Persia - - - - - 16 

India - - - - - 17 

History of the Jews - - - 19 

Africa - - - - - 65 

Abyssinia - - - - - 72 

Barbary - - - - - 73 

Morocco - - - - - 75 

Algiers - - - - - 76 



X CONTENTS. 






Page 


A General Survey op the 


History 


OP 




Europe - 


- 


- 


79 


Russia - 


- 


- 


80 


Denmark *■ 


- 


- 


86 


Sweden - 


- . 


- 


91 


Charles XII. 


- 


- 


94 


Norway - 


- 


- 


98 


Germany - 


- 


- 


99 


The Merovingian Dynasty 


- 


- 


101 


House of Hohenstaufen - 


- 


- 


104 


Prussia - 


- 


- 


111 


Switzerland - 


- 


- 


116 


France 


- 


- 


119 


France as a Republic 


- 


- 


131 


Spain - ■ 


- 


- 


137 


Portugal - 


- 


- 


144 


Italy - 


- 


- 


146 


Naples and Sicily 


- 


- 


147 


Savoy 


- 


- 


148 


Florence - 


- 


- 


149 


Venice - 


- 


- 


149 


Papal Dominions, or States of the Church 


- 


150 


The Ionian Republic 


- 


- 


157 


Turkey - 


- 


- 


159 


The Netherlands 


- 


- 


169 


England and Wales - 


- 


- 


175 


Scotland - 


- 


- 


211 


Ireland 


- 


- 


221 


America - 


. 


_ 


227 



ERRATA. 



In the History. 

Page 9. line 2. for " forty-six " read " fifty-nine " 
20. 14. for " 1 253 " read " 1 953 " 

33. 3. and 9. for "Jacob " read " Abraham" 

80. 20. for "1660 " read " 1560 " 

81. 1. for " first posts in Russia in his reign." &c. read 

" first posts in Russia. In his reign iron and 
copper mines " &c. 

82. 7, 8. for " Pultowa in 1 709 " read " Frederickshall 

in 1718" 
28. for " Russia" read " Prussia " 
85. 30. for " 1817 " read "1827 " 

126. 25. for "and too cruel " read "or too cruel " 

201. 29. for "Duke of York" read "Prince of Wales" 



In the Chronology. 

261. date 7. for " edop." read " edap." 

262. 25. read 

" 1055 David made king of Israel David king aylu. 

1004 Dedication of the Temple Sol temp ago.' 

265. date 3. for " Sara. Epam." read "Spar. Epam." 

266. 6. for « dot." read «« dut." 
272. 8. for "any" read "uny." 

17. for "sad." read "sod." 

274. last, for "keis." read " keib." 

275. 5. for "oubs." read "nal." 

276. 10. for "bit." read "bip." 
279. last, for "ked." read "led." 
281. 6. for "1559" read "1579" 

for " lun." read "loin." 

283. last, for "pen." read "pek." 

284. 1. for "pen." read "pek." 



AN 

EPITOME 



OF 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



xiiSTOEY may be divided, with respect to time, 
into Ancient, Middle, and Modern. 

Ancient History comprehends the time which 
passed from the Creation of the World to the birth 
of Jesus Christ. 

The History of the Middle Ages extends from 
the birth of Christ to the year 1400, when Eu- 
rope began, in many respects, to assume a new 
appearance. 

Modern History extends from the year 1400 to 
the present time. 

. It is necessary to subdivide these great spaces 
of time into several periods. 

".. We shall therefore divide History into sixteen 
periods — seven for Ancient History, five for the 
History of the Middle Ages, and four for Modern 
History. 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



First Period, — The first period comprehends 
one thousand six hundred and fifty- six years, 
from the Creation of the World to the Deluge. 
Before Christ 2348. 

This period contains the history of the Creation, 
disobedience and punishment of man ; of the co- 
venant which God made with Adam after his fall, 
and of the depravity which afterwards took place 
over the earth, and which led to the destruction 
of the whole human race, the family of Noah 
alone excepted. 

Second Period. — The second period compre- 
hends nearly eight hundred years, from the 
Deluge to the time of the Israelites quitting 
Egypt. B. C. 1550. 

This period contains the history of the covenant 
God made with Noah after the Deluge; of the 
repeopling of the earth by the descendants of his 
sons, Shem, Ham, and Japhet ; of the dispersion 
of mankind after the building of the tower of 
Babel; of the history of the Israelites from Abra- 
ham to Moses ; of the foundation of the Assyrian 
monarchy by Nimrod ; and some uncertain ac- 
counts of the origin of the Grecian States, and of 
the Egyptians. 

Third Period. — The third period comprehends 
almost eight hundred years, from the time of the 



ANCIENT HISTOKY. 3 

Israelites quitting Egypt to the foundation of 
Rome. B. C. 753. 

This period contains the history of the Israelites 
in the wilderness, of their settling in the land of 
Canaan, of their judges and kings, and of their 
division into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. 
The kingdoms of Sparta, Athens, Thebes, Corinth, 
and Macedon, were founded about the beginning 
of this period. Towards the end of it Lycurgus 
established his laws in Sparta. The Egyptians 
were rendered famous by their kiug Sesostris; 
and the Assyrian monarchy was destroyed at the 
death of Sardanapalus, and divided into the king- 
doms of Media, Babylonia, and Nineveh. The 
siege of Troy and the era of the Olympiads took 
place also during this period. 

Fourth Period. — The fourth period compre- 
hends two hundred and sixteen years, from the 
foundation of Rome to the taking of Babylon by 
Cyrus. B. C. 537. 

This period contains the history of the six first 
of the Roman kings ; of Draco, Solon, and Pisis- 
tratus, in Athens ; of the union of the kingdoms 
of Babylon and Nineveh by Esarhaddon ; of the 
destruction of the kingdom of Israel by Salma- 
naser ; of the conquest of Jerusalem and the cap- 
tivity of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar ; and of the 
succession of Cyrus to the ancient Assyrian em- 
pire under the title of the Persian empire. 

Fifth Period. — The fifth period comprehends 
two hundred and four years, from the taking of 
B 2 



4 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Babylon by Cyrus to the expedition of Alexander 
into Asia. B. C. 333. 

This period contains the history of the abolition 
of monarchy in Rome, of the taking of Boine by 
the Gauls, and of the Samnite war. The history 
of the kings of Persia to Darius, who was con- 
quered by Alexander the Great ; of the Grecian 
republic, distinguished by its philosophers and 
warriors ; of the Persian and Peloponnesian wars ; 
of the retreat of the ten thousand ; of Philip of 
Macedon ; of the return of the Jews from capti- 
vity ; and of the rebuilding of the Temple. 

Sixth Period. — The sixth period comprehends 
one hundred and eighty-eight years, from the ex- 
pedition of Alexander into Asia to the destruction 
of Carthage. B. C. 145. 

This period contains the history of the subver- 
sion of the Persian empire by Alexander the 
Great ; of the division of Alexander's dominions 
between his four generals, who founded four in- 
dependent kingdoms ; of the defence of Judea by 
the Maccabees ; of the Achaean League ; of 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus ; of the beginning of the 
Roman conquests in Greece ; and of the three 
Punic wars, which ended with the destruction of 
Carthage, the epoch of Boman grandeur. 

Seventh Period. — The seventh period compre- 
hends one hundred and forty-five years, from the 
destruction of Carthage to the birth of Christ, 
which terminates Ancient History. 
• This period contains the history of the conquests 
of the Bomans in Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, 



MIDDLE AGES. 5 

Judea, Africa, and Gaul ; of the civil wars be- 
tween Pompey and Cassar, and between Augustus 
and Mark Antony ; and of the change of the Ro- 
man government to a monarchy under Augustus, 
in whose rei^n our Saviour was born. 



MIDDLE AGES. 

Eighth Period. — The eighth period comprehends 
three hundred and twelve years, from the birth of 
Christ to the year 312 of the Christian era, when 
Constantine the Great embraced Christianity. 

This period contains little more than the history 
of the Roman empire, as the Romans possessed 
the greater part of the then known world. It 
begins with Augustus and continues to Constan- 
tine, who removed the seat of empire to Con- 
stantinople. Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus 
seventy years after the birth of Christ. 

Ninth Period. — The ninth period comprehends 
one hundred and sixty-four years, from Constan- 
tine the Great to the extinction of the Western 
empire, A. D. 476, 

This period is also nearly confined to the history 
of the Roman empire, which, soon after Constan- 
tine, was divided into the Eastern and Western 
empires. The power of the Romans was at this 
time rapidly declining ; they were invaded by the 
Vandals, the Visigoths, the Gauls, and other 
northern nations, who at last took possession of 
Rome, and put an end to the Western empire. 
B 3 



6 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

During this period the Romans finally abandoned 
their conquests in Britain, and the Franks settled 
in Gaul. 

Tenth Period. — The tenth period comprehends 
three hundred and twenty-four years, from the 
extinction of the Western empire to the nominal 
re-establishment of the same empire under Charle- 
magne. A. D. 800. 

This period contains the continuation of the 
history of the Eastern empire, that of the Visi- 
goths, Ostrogoths, and Lombards, and of the 
Saxons in Britain ; in France, of Clovis, of the 
Mayors of the palace, of Pepin, the founder of the 
Carlovingian line ; of the conquest of the Lom- 
bards by Charlemagne, which gave him possession 
of Italy. Mahomet also lived during this period : 
his successors, the Saracens, conquered Persia, 
Syria, Palestine, Sicily, the northern parts of 
Africa, and settled finally in Spain. 

Eleventh Period. — The eleventh period compre- 
hends two hundred and ninety-seven years, from 
the time Charlemagne received the imperial crown 
to the first Crusade. A. D. 1097. 

This period contains the history of the loss of 
Italy and Germany, and also of Burgundy, by 
the successors of Charlemagne ; of the power 
which the Popes began to acquire over the clergy, 
and even over the princes of Europe ; of the dis- 
putes between the Popes and the Patriarchs of 
Constantinople ; of the conquest of Italy by Otho 
the Great, emperor of Germany ; of the extinction 
of the Carlovingian race by the electior of Hugh 



MODERN HISTORY. 7 

Capet to the throne of France ; and of the con- 
quest of England by William Duke of Normandy. 
The Danes and Swedes embraced Christianity and 
began to be known during this period. 

Twelfth Period. — The twelfth period compre- 
hends three hundred and three years, and extends 
from the first Crusade to the year 1400, which 
finishes the Middle Ages. 

This period contains the history of the Crusades, 
or expeditions of the Europeans to recover the 
Holy Land from the Turks, who had conquered it 
from the Saracens ; of Rodolph of Hapsburg, the 
founder of the house of Austria ; of the disturb- 
ances between the Guelphs and Gibellines ; of the 
disputes which arose in the Church, and occa- 
sioned the election of two Popes at the same time ; 
of the Latin emperors of Constantinople ; of the 
conquests of Ireland and Wales by the English, 
and of their victories in France during the reign 
of Edward III. ; of Margaret of Waldemar, the 
Semiramis of the North ; and of the conquests of 
Zenghis Khan and his successors in Asia. 



MODEKN HISTOEY. 

Thirteenth Period. — The thirteenth period com- 
prehends one hundred and nineteen years, from 
the year 1400 to the election of Charles V., Em- 
peror of Germany. A. D. 1519. 

This period contains the history of Tamerlane 
and Bajazet, and of the taking of Constantinople 
b4 



8 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

by the Turks ; of the invasion of France by Henry 
V. of England ; of the wars between the houses 
of York and Lancaster, and of the election of 
Henry VII. to the throne of England ; of the 
Russians having shaken oif the yoke of the Tar- 
tars ; of the rise of several of the Italian states ; 
of the invention of printing ; of the family of the 
Medici in Florence ; of the union of the crowns 
of Arragon and Castile by the marriage of Fer- 
dinand and Isabella, and the subjection of the 
Moors in Spain ; of the discovery of America by 
Columbus, and of the Cape of Good Hope by the 
Portuguese. 

Fourteenth Period. — The fourteenth period com- 
prehends one hundred and twenty-four years, from 
the reign of Charles V. in Germany to the acces- 
sion of Louis XIV. in France. A. D. 1643. 

This period contains the history of Charles V, 
Emperor of Germany, of Francis I., King of 
France, of Henry VIII., King of England, of 
Pope Leo X., and of the Reformation which 
beo-an in Germany under Luther, and extended to 
most of the northern kingdoms of Europe ; of the 
reio-n of Elizabeth in England ; of the succession 
of James VI. of Scotland to the English throne, 
and of Henry IV. to that of France ; of the revolt 
of the United Provinces, under the Prince of 
Orange, from the oppressions of Philip II. of 
Spain ; of the delivery of Sweden from the Da- 
nish yoke by Gustavus Vasa, and of the recovery 
of Portugal from the Spaniards by the Duke of 
Braganza. 



MODERN HISTORY, 9 

Fifteenth Period, — The fifteenth period com* 
prehends one hundred and forty-six years, from 
the accession of Louis XIV. in France to the peace 
of Amiens in 1802. 

This period contains the history of the death of 
Charles I. in England ; of the usurpation of Crom- 
well; of the restoration of Charles II., and the 
revolution which placed William Prince of Orange 
on the throne of England ; of the reign of Louis 
XIV. in France ; of the succession of the house 
of Bourbon to the throne of Spain, in the person 
of Philip V. ; of the conquests of Charles XII. of 
Sweden, and of Peter the Great, Emperor of 
Russia ; of the union of England and Scotland ; 
of the succession of George I. to the throne of 
England at the death of Queen Anne ; of Maria 
Theresa, Empress of Germany and Queen of 
Hungary ; of Frederick the Great, King of Prus- 
sia, and Catherine II., Empress of Russia ; of 
the revolt of the United States of America from 
Great Britain ; of the conquests of the English in 
the East Indies ; and of the dismemberment of 
Poland by the sovereigns of Russia, Prussia, 
and Austria; of the revolution in France in 
1789 ; of the death of Louis XYI. ; of the reign 
of terror and commencement of the career of 
Buonaparte ; of the administration of Pitt in 
England, and the mutiny of the English fleet at 
the Xore ; of the naval victories of the English at 
St. Vincent's and Camperdown; of the invasion 
of Italy by Buonaparte, and of the fall of Venice ; 
of the expedition of the French into E°:ypt ; of 
b5 



f 

10 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

the victory of Lord Nelson at the Nile ; of the 
Rebellion in Ireland; of the return of Buonaparte 
from Egypt, and his being chosen first consul ; of 
the union of Ireland with England ; of the vic- 
tory of Buonaparte at Marengo ; of that of Nel- 
son at Copenhagen ; and of the peace concluded 
with England at Amiens in 1802. 

Sixteenth Period. — The sixteenth period com- 
prehends forty-five years, from the peace of Amiens 
in 1802 to the revolution in France and other 
parts of Europe in 1848. 

This period contains the history of the renewal 
of hostilities between England and France, of the 
assumption of the Imperial crown by Napoleon 
Buonaparte ; of the battle of Trafalgar ; of the 
abolition of the slave-trade by the English ; of 
the relinquishing of the Imperial crown of Ger- 
many by the emperor, and his adoption of the 
title of Emperor of Austria ; of the new kingdoms 
established by Napoleon, and of his taking Vienna; 
of his brothers being placed on the thrones of 
Spain, Holland, Westphalia, and Naples, and of 
his threatened invasion of England ; of the peace 
between France and Austria, and the marriage of 
Napoleon with Maria Louisa ; of the dethrone- 
ment of the Pope, and the union of Holland 
with France ; of the invasion of Russia by Na- 
poleon, which was the commencement of his ill 
success ; of the burning of Moscow, and the de- 
struction of the French army ; of the coalition of 
the allies against France; of the defeat of the 
French at Leipsic ; of the Prince of Orange being 



MODERN HISTORY. 11 

declared king of the Netherlands ; of the continued 
successes of the English in Spain under Lord 
Wellington; of the advance of the allied troops 
towards the capital of France ; of the capitulation 
of Paris, and of the resignation of the crowns of 
France and Italy by Napoleon ; of the formation 
of a new constitution in France ; of the establish- 
ment of Louis XVIII. on the throne of his an- 
cestors ; of the banishment of Napoleon to Elba ; 
of the treaty of peace signed at Paris between the 
Emperors of Austria and Russia, the Kings of 
Great Britain and Prussia, and the King of 
France; of the re-establishment of the Pope, 
and the restoration of the Jesuits ; of the escape 
of Napoleon from Elba, and his return to Paris ; 
of the reunion of the allied powers against Na- 
poleon; of his complete defeat at the glorious 
battle of Waterloo, and his flight to Paris ; of the 
reinstatement of Louis XVIII. on his throne, and 
of the banishment of Napoleon to St. Helena ; of 
the French being obliged to relinquish their con- 
quests and acquisitions, and to admit 150,000 of 
the allied troops under the command of the Duke 
of Wellington ; of the death of the Princess Char- 
lotte, heiress apparent to the throne of England ; 
of the foundation of the kingdoms of Columbia, 
Mexico, Buenos Ayres, Chili, and Peru; of the 
decline of the Turkish empire, and the battle of 
Navarino ; of the passing of the Roman Catholic 
Relief Bill ; of the ordinances of Charles X., which 
led to the revolution of July 1830, in which 
B 6 



12 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Charles was driven from his throne, and Louis 
Philippe nominated King of the French ; of the 
succession of William IV. to the throne of Great 
Britain, which introduced a Whig Ministry, Cor- 
porate Eeform, Parliamentary Reform, a bill in 
favour of Dissenters, and the total abolition of 
Slavery ; of the insurrection of the Greeks against 
the Turkish empire ; the devastation committed 
by Ibraham Pasha in the Morea ; the loss of the 
Turkish fleet at Navarino ; Otho, crown Prince 
of Bavaria, elected King of Greece, thus again 
raised to a kingdom ; of the death of Ferdinand 
of Spain, and the contest between his daughter 
Maria Isabella and her uncle Don Carlos ; of the 
division of Belgium from Holland, and the eleva- 
tion of Leopold, Duke of Saxe Coburg, to the 
throne of Belgium ; of the accession of Nicholas 
to the throne of all the Russias ; of the accession 
of Alexandrina Victoria, daughter of the late Duke 
of Kent, to the British Crown ; of the accession 
of the Duke of Cumberland to the crown of Ha- 
nover ; of the marriage of the Queen of England 
to Albert, Prince of Saxe Coburg and Gotha ; of 
the Chartist disturbances ; of the war with China, 
and its probable results; of the changes in Ca- 
nada ; of the war in the East Indies against the 
Affghans, Scinde, and the Sikhs, under the com- 
mand of Sir Charles Napier; of the distress and 
famine in Ireland ; of the marriages of the Queen 
of Spain with Don Francisco D'Assis, and her sister 
the Infanta with the Duke de Montpensier, a son of 



MODERN HISTORY. 13 

Louis Philippe; of the government of Algiers 
being usurped by the French ; of the sudden 
Eevolution in France, the abdication of Louis 
Philippe, and the declaration of a Eepublican 
srovermnent in France. 



14 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



ASIA. 



Asia is the largest division of the eastern hemi- 
sphere : it is the oldest, or rather the earliest 
known, of the four quarters of the globe ; and 
though now sunk into the most wretched state of 
Pagan darkness and idolatry, commands our re- 
spect as being the country in which God first 
manifested his work of Creation. It was here God 
placed his creature Man in a state of innocence ; it 
was here man fell from that state, and was driven 
from Paradise ; it was here the first human being 
was born, and here were the first fruits of sin, 
pain, death, murder. It was in Asia that sin 
spread and flourished until the sons of men were 
so corrupt that God destroyed his fair creation by 
an universal deluge, the family of Noah only ex- 
cepted. Asia was repeopled by the third son of 
Noah, Shem, and his descendants — who again 
became sinful, and provoked God to anger, until 
the earth opened her mouth and swallowed up 
Dathan, Coran, and Abiram. The cities of So- 
dom and Gomorrah were also destroyed by fire 
from heaven, leaving as a lasting memorial a stag- 
nant unwholesome pool where those cities stood. 



ASIA. 1 5 

It was in Asia also that our blessed Saviour, the 
Lord of life and glory, condescended to put on 
humanity, to live a life of poverty, and to suffer 
an ignominious death to redeem man from sin : 
here also was manifested the descent of the Holy 
Ghost : here the Apostles laboured, martyrs suf- 
fered, and the Gospel won its widening way. So 
thoroughly is the history of Asia blended with 
the inspired writings of the Old and New Testa- 
ments, that a very short notice will be found suffi- 
cient for the young Christian, especially as the 
conquests made by Great Britain in the East are 
generally known and familiar. 



ASSYEIA. 

This country is supposed to have been founded 
about 100 years after the Deluge by Nimrod, 
who is described as a mighty hunter. It was 
situated between the Black and Caspian seas, not 
far from the spot where the Garden of Eden is sup- 
posed to have stood, two of the rivers of which ran 
through it — Euphrates and Tigris. The great 
and famous city of Babylon stood on the first of 
these, and on the latter the far-famed Nineveh, 
which was built by Semiramis, the wife and suc- 
cessor of Ninus, and the mother of Nynius. As- 
syria was a powerful and warlike country for nearly 
1400 years, when at the death of Sardanapalus it 
was destroyed, and the three kingdoms of Media, 
Babylonia, and Nineveh founded on its ruins. 



16 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Thus ended the first great monarchy." Babylonia 
and Nineveh were united under Esarhaddon, until 
conquered by Cyrus the Great. 



PEKSIA. 

Cyrus was theTounder of the Persian monarchy — 
the second of the first four great monarchies of the 
old world : he inherited the kingdom of Persia 
from his father Cambyses, Media from his uncle 
Cyaxeres, and made himself sovereign of all As- 
syria by the conquest of Babylon. He had also 
previously conquered Asia Minor, Syria, and 
Arabia ; afterwards he subdued all the nations be- 
tween those dominions and the Bed Sea, and car- 
ried his victorious arms to the confines of Ethio- 
pia. His son and successor added to these exten- 
sive dominions the kingdoms of Egypt — the most 
fertile country in the world, — watered and en- 
riched by the Nile flowing through it. This was 
the only addition made by Cambyses — nor did 
his successors do much more. Greece was a coun- 
try long desired by the sovereigns of Persia — - 
particularly by Xerxes ; but the Greeks resisted 
all their efforts, and remained free and independent, 
— not only so, but even ventured to invade Persia, 
in which they succeeded, under Alexander of 
Macedon, who thus founded the Macedonian em- 
pire on that of Persia, about 200 years after it 
had been formed into a monarchy. Alexander 
entered Asia 333 years before Christ ; and after . 



ASIA. 17 

the battle of the Granicus soon effected the con* 
quest of Asia Minor. In the battle of Issus he 
encountered Darius, the magnificent king of Per- 
sia, who met him with a train much more like that 
of a conqueror taking possession of a conquered 
kingdom, than one preparing to defend his domi- 
nions against a warrior who carried victory 
wherever he carried his arms. In this battle the 
wife and family of Darius were taken captives by 
Alexander, whose conduct towards them reflected 
the highest honour on him. Darius afterwards 
fell in the battle of Arbela. The whole of 
Greece having been subdued by Alexander and 
his father, Philip of Macedon, he now turned 
towards Syria, which, with Tyre, Judea, and 
Egypt, soon yielded to the conqueror. He also 
conquered several kingdoms beyond the Caspian 
Sea, and, conducting his army across the Indus, 
proceeded into India, where with some difficulty 
he conquered Poms, an Indian king. After this, 
Alexander returned to Babylon ; and there this 
u mighty madman " lost his life in a coarse de- 
bauch. 



INDIA. 

India is the richest country of all Asia, and 
takes its name from the river Indus. Jenges 
Khan invaded Hindostan in 1239 : after him Ti- 
inour, or Tamerlane, the Tartar, made a conquest 
of it in 1519. Baber, king of Fughana, in Tar- 



18 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

tary, conquered the Hindoo emperor Ibrahim, 
and governed in his stead ; and his posterity have 
possessed the throne ever since that period. In 1 733 
Nadir Shah, a Persian, invaded India, and pene- 
trated as far as Delhi. In this invasion it is com- 
puted that not less than 200,000 of the Mogul's 
subjects were slain, many in battle, but many more 
in a dreadful massacre at Delhi. Nadir Shah is 
said to have carried away with him money and 
treasures to the amount of 80,000,000/. sterling. 
The late emperor was Shah Allum : he was taken 
prisoner by a Persian invader named Abdallah, 
who assassinated the old man, but his son suffered 
many and great reverses. The Sujhah having 
elected Sujah al Dowlas, Nabob of Oude, Shah 
threw himself on the protection of the Nabob : 
he was, however, afterwards taken under the pro- 
tection of the English ; part of the province of 
Allahabad was allotted to him with a pension, on 
which he dragged out a few years of miserable 
existence. The English now possess immense 
tracts of country in Asia, which they are con- 
stantly increasing. They have a large British 
population in the three divisions under the British 
government ; and are by the aid of missionaries, 
schools, and printing-presses, extending the arts 
of civilisation, and the knowledge of the Gospel 
as taught by our blessed Redeemer, and preached 
by his disciples, over a wide extent of country to 
the heathen who sit in darkness and the shadow 
of death. 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 19 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

The most authentic record we have of very 
early periods in history is to be found in the Holy 
Scriptures. From these we learn that the whole 
earth having become exceedingly sinful, God de- 
stroyed the inhabitants by a deluge, one only 
family excepted, by whom the earth was re- 
peopled. Very soon after the Flood the Scriptures 
pass over the general race of mankind to relate 
minutely the history of one family, of w T hom the 
greatest care is taken that every fact be made 
known that can tend to elucidate their history. 
This family soon became a small nation, — one 
would say, of very inferior consequence to .many 
surrounding nations ; yet it is of this small nation 
that the sacred history continues to speak. This 
small and distinct people and nation were the 
Jews, God's own peculiar people, the only people 
who retained the knowledge of one supreme 
Almighty God, when every other nation wor- 
shipped numerous deities, and paid their adoration 
to idols. For 4000 years this singular people 
have been kept a distinct and separate race in the 
most wonderful manner. The country also, set 
apart for them, though not an island, nor a se- 
cluded spot of land, but more than many others 
exposed to the appropriation and subjugation of 



20 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

other nations, has never (though repeatedly sub- 
jugated) become the land of any other people, but 
appears to be sacredly reserved for the return 
of the remnant of its own inhabitants. It is 
scarcely less than miracle that this extraordinary 
people should for 4000 years have preserved 
their origin, language, countenance, manners, and 
country so distinct, that not a shadow of doubt 
can exist of their being the children of Abraham, 
though there is not on earth the known posterity 
of any other individual, scarcely of any other 
nation, cotemporary with the patriarch. 

The history of the Jews begins with Abram, ac- 
cording to Josephus 1253 B.C. Abram was the son 
of Terah, an idolater, a "maker of images," and was 
converted from idolatry by an especial revelation 
from God. In obedience to the divine command, 
he removed to Ur in Charran, in West Mesopo- 
tamia. At this first call Abram was sixty years 
old ; the second call was given after the death of 
Terah, and separated Abram from his family and 
nation, directing him to the land afterwards so 
full of important events to him and his posterity. 
(Gen. xii. 2.) Relying on the promise, " I will 
make thee a great nation," Abram entered Ca- 
naan on the north, and at the large spreading 
turpentine-tree of Moreh the Lord promised that 
the land should be possessed by his descendants. 
Palestine was not then fully inhabited ; and the 
south being afflicted by famine, Abram, with his 
family, removed into Egypt, then, as now, famed 
for its rich corn-lands and pastures. Here Abram, 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 21 

fearful of the effect of his wife's beauty on the 
heart of the king, was led into a snare, from which 
God delivered him, and prevented his losing the 
promise made to him, and in a few years enabled 
him to return to Palestine greatly increased in 
riches. But Abram found that increase of riches 
was not increase of happiness. Differences arose 
between him and his worldly-minded relative Lot 
that led to a separation, and a very different fate 
awaited them. Still the promise of a pos- 
terity was delayed ; and Sarai's faith failing, she 
persuaded her husband to take her handmaid 
Hagar as his wife, who brought forth a son, and 
called his name Ishmael. From him the Arabs 
are descended, a numerous race, whose history to 
the present day may be summed up in the pro- 
phecy delivered to his mother in the wilderness : 
" He will be a wild man ; his hand will be against 
every man, and every man's hand against him." 
(Gen. xvi. 12.) "A wild ass man " is the original 
expression ; and Gibbon calls them " wild ass men, 
armed against mankind." And such they truly 
are ; — their hand against every man, so that even 
the property of their own tribes is not secure. 
It has been observed, that of all the numerous 
streams of population which have covered the 
earth, this prediction has been uttered of one only, 
and to that one it ever has, and still continues to 
apply. The nations around have been con- 
quered. Arabia still remains free. Other nations 
have been rich and powerful, but none equal it ; 
-—that wonderful country, which, can be traced 



22 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

to one head alone. A recent traveller says : — 
"A single glance into the wastes of the desert 
may tell the tale of a thousand miles as to dis- 
tance, and 3000 years as to time. Here, alone, 
the Arab is to be seen in his primitive simplicity — 
a free wanderer over the same plains. The tra- 
veller is carried back at once to the age of the 
earliest patriarchs. The form he sees presents the 
picture of those ancient fathers, with scarcely an 
alteration. He may listen to their language, 
number their possessions, partake of their food, 
examine their dress, enter their tents, attend the 
ceremonies of their marriage festivals, and present 
himself before their princes, — still all is the 
same. At the well they water their flocks ; they 
sit at the door of the tent in the cool of the day ; 
they take butter and milk, and the calf they have 
dressed, and set it before the stranger ; they move 
onward to some distant plain, and pitch their tent 
near richer pasturage. Their treasures are in 
camels, kine, sheep, and goats, men-servants and 
maid-servants, and changes of garment. He may 
stand near one of their encampments, and, as the 
aged man sits in dignity, or the young men and 
maidens drive their flocks past him, he seems to 
know them all, and almost to recognise those 
whose names are familiar in the Bible. The 
mountains, the valleys, the streams, exhibit the 
like unchanged appearance. Not a rock has been 
moved, not a barrier has been raised. Planting 
and culture have not appeared ; not a village has 
been collected together. The founder of the race 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 23 

would recognise without effort his own people and 
his own land." In this his son Ishmael, as well 
as in his son Isaac, is the posterity of Jacob dis- 
tinctly preserved, so clear and unchangeable as to 
be a standing marvel — a mystery serving to esta- 
blish the truths of prophecy. 

The faith of the Arabs, however, differs greatly 
from that of the patriarch : the descendants of the 
son of Jacob have forsaken the faith of their fa- 
thers, and now follow the lying absurdities of 
Mahomed. 

Isaac, the child of promise, was like his father 
Abraham, a good and pious man ; but for many 
years the faith of Isaac and Rebecca was severely 
tried : the promise was in their posterity, yet they 
had no children. At length twins were born. 
Esau, the eldest, was in many respects like the 
bold, wild, self-willed Arab of the present day ; 
Jacob, a man of a quiet mind and domestic habits. 
In Esau, as the eldest, the promised blessings were 
centered : he valued them, however, at little price, 
and sold his birthright to his brother for the carnal 
gratification of a savoury dish, of which he was par- 
ticularly fond. Hence he was called Edom, or 
Red, the colour of his pottage. He also manifested 
a disregard for the faith of his fathers by taking 
wives of the idolatrous daughters of the land, and 
not restraining their opposition to the religion of 
his parents. When Isaac was growing very old 
he became anxious to counteract the effects of 
Esau's folly as much as possible, by giving him 
the blessing of a first-born. Rebecca, however, 



24 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

desirous of securing the blessing as well as the 
birthright to her amiable and favourite son, formed 
a plan for circumventing Esau and deceiving Isaac. 
At first Jacob hesitated to confirm the plan of his 
wily mother by absolute falsehoods : he was, how- 
ever, overpowered by her readiness to take the 
blame and sin on herself; the coveted blessing 
was attained, and on the return of Esau the de- 
ceit was found out. Isaac seems, however, to 
have had some divine certainty that the blessing 
had been given in accordance with the will of 
God, and therefore did not attempt to reverse his 
proceeding. A spiritual blessing rather than a 
temporal one seems to have been the object of 
Jacob and his mother ; but both had great reason 
to regret their deceit and fraud, for a dreadful 
hatred to his brother sprang up in the heart of 
Esau, and Rebecca was obliged to send away her 
beloved, dutiful, and affectionate son, that she 
might not see him slain before her eyes by his own 
brother for a crime planned and partly executed 
by herself. Poor mother ! she did indeed justly 
pay the penalty to forfeited truth and honesty. 
She was already in the vale of years, and could 
scarcely hope to see the son of her love return 
from his enforced banishment : nor did she ; while 
he in a distant country was labouring hard under 
a severe master and relative, the fond but mis- 
taken mother died. In the beautiful narrative 
contained in the 29th, 30th, and 31st of Genesis 
we learn how Jacob, who had deceived others, was 
himself deceived and punished by having Leah 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 25 

given him as wife instead of his beloved Rachel, 
and being made to suffer fourteen yearjs of weary- 
servitude; but God blessed Jacob in his sub- 
stance, and in his flocks; the flocks of Mesopo- 
tamia were, under ordinary circumstances, very 
fruitful, but in the case of Jacob, their increase 
and strength was remarkable ; so that the sons of 
Laban grew envious, and rendered the condition 
of Jacob so uncomfortable, that having laid his 
case before the Lord, and received instructions to 
return to the land of his fathers, he sent for Ra- 
chel and Leah " to the field," their usual summer 
residence, and finding them willing to depart, they 
all set forward towards Canaan without delay. 
Laban quickly followed, unwilling to allow them 
to depart: they, however, united in raising an 
altar to {i Jehovah the revered One," and parted on 
friendly terms. Jacob now prepared to meet his 
brother Esau : he had received an express promise 
from God of support and protection, and had been 
favoured by a sight of the angelic host who had 
guarded him. Still he sent a humble message to 
his brother, intimating in order to propitiate him, 
that he possessed property, and asked only for- 
getfulness of past offences ; but no return of friendly 
greeting arrived. Jacob heard that Esau with 
400 men was coming to meet him, and prepared 
for the escape of his family ; and above all, prayed 
humbly and secretly to his God " until the break- 
ing of day." During that night he had been dis- 
abled for flight or hasty motion, Gen. 31st, in 
remembrance of which the Jews to this day avoid 
c 



26 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

eating the hinder limbs of animals where the sinew 
that shrank up is placed. The sun arose, and God, 
in whose hand are the hearts of all men, gave Jacob 
strength, and subdued the wrath in the heart of 
Esau. The brothers met, wept on each others 
neck, and were reconciled; and Esau proposed 
that they should form one family. Against this, 
Jacob found a courteous excuse, and they parted, 
Esau returning to Sier in the rocky country of 
Edom, and Jacob crossing the Jordan, " came safe 
to the city of Shechem" in Palestine, where he 
bought a piece of land : now Shechem, was in a 
depraved neighbourhood, and Jacob did not keep 
his children prudently at home, therefore they 
brought great grief and sorrow upon him; his 
daughter Dinah fell into evil, and as one sin leads 
to another, deceit, violence, and deeds of blood 
soon followed the indulgence of unlawful passions. 
Henry says, " See what comes of Dinah's gad- 
ding." Scott on this portion of Jacob's history 
says, " Let parents remember their responsibility, 
and seriously examine whether much of the vanity, 
frivolity, and direct sinfulness of their children, is 
not to be charged to their own blamable neglect, 
to their passing by evil courses in early life." 

Jacob now recollected the vow he had made at 
Bethel when he fled from Esau, and set about 
reforming his family by causing his children to 
put away the strange gods which by degrees had 
found place among his children and servants. He 
then set out for Bethel, and passed through the 
Canaanites without being molested, notwith- 



HISTOKY OF THE JEWS. 27 

standing the late acts of violence and outrage. 
Having built an altar to God at Bethel, the Lord 
appeared to him and renewed his covenant under 
the title of " God Almighty." Soon after his 
return his beloved Rachel died, when, giving him 
another son, only the second she had, for God 
withheld children from her, and bestowed that 
blessing on Leah as a compensation for the want 
of her husband's love. The place of Rachel's in- 
terment is described by several travellers. Carne 
says: — " A small square building surmounted by 
a dome marks the spot — a wild and solitary place — 
no palms nor cypress trees to shelter it from the 
blast ; not a single tree to shade the spot." About 
this time the profligate conduct of his eldest son, 
and the sinful habits of his younger sons brought 
heavy grief on the head and heart of Jacob, who 
now went to Mamre to receive the blessing and 
close the aged eyes of his venerable parent Isaac. 
A degree of selfish love of worldly ease becomes 
apparent in the patriarch at this time. A severe 
trial awaited him in the loss of his darling son 
Joseph. Jacob was a partial father, and the sons 
of Rachel were very dear to him; but he mani- 
fested his preference in a weak, injudicious manner, 
by giving him "a coat of many colours," and 
making other unwise displays of parental fondness, 
calculated to fill the lad's head with frivolous 
pride and vanity, and the hearts of his brothers 
with envy and hatred toward him. These young 
men were bad characters, and Joseph, apparently 

without any remonstrance or caution addressed to 
c 2 



28 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

them, informed his father of their sins and evil 
practices: hence the brethren could no longer 
speak peaceably to him. In those days, when the 
precepts and directions of Scripture were not to 
be obtained, the Almighty sometimes made known 
his will by dreams and visions. Now, Joseph 
had dreamed two remarkable dreams, apparently 
indicating that he should be placed over the heads 
of his brethren, and probably this increased the 
self-importance of the spoilt lad, who, being sent 
to them on business concerning the flocks, fell a 
victim to their jealousy. They at first proposed 
to murder him, but God watched over the lad : he 
was sold to Ishmaeiites, carried into Egypt, and 
re-sold as a slave. Meanwhile, Jacob was deceived 
by a tale, and taught to believe his darling dead, 
and the brethren thought every thing had suc- 
ceeded to their wish. But to what an extra- 
ordinary, what a wonderful chain of events did 
this lead. Egypt was an important and inter- 
esting country, that had made far greater advances 
in learning, in arts, manufactures, and science 
than any other. It was a fertile land abounding 
in corn, while the neighbouring nations were suf- 
fering from famine. This led to Israel's going 
down into Egypt — to the captivity and the deli- 
verance of the Jews, and eventually to the intro- 
duction of the truths of the Gospel. The stu- 
pendous works of art which still remain in Egypt 
prove that it even then deserved the appellation 
of " The Cradle of the Sciences," and that she 
nursed them to a goodly stature ; but its downfal 
cannot be matter of surprise, when we call to 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 29 

mind the gross idolatries of the Egyptians, wor- 
shipping every creeping thing, abominable beasts, 
and all manner of idols. Over this land Joseph 
became governor, again assisted by two remark- 
able dreams ; but this beautiful part of the history 
is so pathetically related in the book of Genesis 
that to repeat it here were superfluous. The 
famine which ensued was severely felt in Pales- 
tine, and probably all through the East, and multi- 
tudes resorted to Egypt to buy corn. Among 
them came the brothers of Joseph, who himself 
superintended the sale of the corn, and imme- 
diately recognised the brethren. The result is 
well known. Jacob at first refused to believe the 
assurances of his sons, that Joseph lived and was 
governor of Egypt : at last, encouraged by a com- 
munication from God, the old man with his family 
set out for the land of Goshen, where Joseph 
designed to settle his family. It was a fertile spot 
on the eastern district of the Nile, probably left 
uninhabited by the shepherd invaders of Egypt. 
Here a hardy people would prove a barrier against 
the Philistines, and here the Hebrews would be 
less liable to corruption than if dispersed through 
the country. Here the affecting meeting between 
the aged father and his long-lost son took place. 
Joseph brought his father into the presence of the 
monarch, and the patriarch blessed the monarch, 
referring to Jehovah as the Lord his God : thus 
at once proclaiming his trust and confidence in 
the living God. Joseph provided for his family 
during the seventeen years of his father's life, and 

c 3 



30 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

the promise of Pharaoh was fulfilled : — " The 
good of all the land of Egypt is yours;*' but, 
feeling his strength fail, and desiring a "better 
country," the dying patriarch made Joseph so- 
lemnly promise that he should be buried in Canaan, 
thus leaving a testimony of his faith in the promise 
that Canaan should be their abode. He then 
blessed the sons of Joseph, and included them in 
the promised division, intimating that Shechem 
also would be theirs, thus making them feel it an 
honour to be called the sons of Abraham. He 
also called together his wandering rebellious sons, 
all of whom appear to have been living, and pro- 
nounced on each separately a blessing and short 
prophecy, every one of which prefigured the cha- 
racter and circumstances of the tribe, and have since 
been fulfilled literally. Thus Joseph, and his sons, 
Ephraim and Manasseh, were - to be " as fruitful 
vines." Their numerous tribes occupied the Land 
of Promise ; six or seven of the judges were from 
Ephraim; so were the kings of Israel, when a 
division of the land took place. The fierce and 
warlike tribe of Benjamin was figured forth as 
" the Wolf," and so of all the others. The pa- 
triarch having finished his work, "gathered up 
his feet into the bed, yielded up the ghost, and 
was gathered unto his people." 

The sons of Jacob appear to have remained in 
Egypt or Goshen until another king arose, who 
knew not Joseph; but this distinct people were 
by their rapid and extraordinary increase becoming 
formidable. This king therefore degraded them 
by the severest bondage, and laid such heavy 



HISTORY OP THE JEWS. 31 

burdens on them that notwithstanding the fertility 
of the land and the luxuries it supplied, the Is- 
raelites were very anxious to leave it. Yet they 
were obliged to labour " in mortar and brick/' for 
the building of those splendid edifices which still 
perpetuate their bondage. Finding these cruelties 
insufficient to prevent the increase of this people, 
a savage order was issued that every male child 
born of an Israelite should be destroyed; but 
vain were the efforts of wicked men. During 
this inhuman proceeding the deliverer of his race 
was born, and miraculously preserved by being 
placed, when his mother could no longer hide 
him, in a basket on the brink of the river. The 
daughter of Pharaoh saw and pitied the " goodly 
child," and at once determined to rescue him. 
The suggestion of the young woman to call a 
Hebrew nurse was acceded to, and again the son 
of Amram, the descendant of Levi, was folded in 
the arms of a mother. Josephus says, that when 
the child was three years old, Pharaoh placed his 
diadem on the curling locks of the young Moses, 
who with marks of indignation took it off, threw 
it on the ground, and trampled on it, which the 
soothsayers regarded as ominous, and would have 
killed the child, but that the astonished king inter- 
fered to save him. The same spirit influenced 
him when " refusing to be called the son of Pha- 
raoh's daughter, choosing rather to suffer affliction 
with the children of God than to eojoy the plea- 
sures of sin for a season." He found in the land 
of Midian employ and intercourse with God for 

c 4 



32 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

forty years. During all this time his brethren 
were groaning under hard taskmasters. It was 
here on Mount Horeb that the Lord appeared 
to Moses, and directed him to return to Egypt for 
the deliverance of the people. After two months 
Moses obeyed, and, accompanied by his brother 
Aaron, went to the Egyptian king with a message 
from the Lord God of Israel, requiring that he 
should let them go. Pharaoh refused, and caused 
their sufferings to be increased by doubling the 
number of bricks they were to make, and refusing 
to give them straw. These events are beautifully 
related in the third, fourth, and fifth chapters of 
Exodus. The brothers again and again appear 
before the king, when the most remarkable contest 
in history took place. Ten plagues, each of them 
bearing on some particular point of Egyptian law 
or sacred feeling, were sent in succession. These 
plagues were all different, and sent more fully to 
show the power of Israel's God and the wickedness 
of Pharaoh in disregarding the repeated warnings 
of Moses. The last plague was retributive justice. 
They had murdered hundreds of the Jewish 
children, but now their own were cut off by 
thousands at a stroke. This determined Pharaoh 
to let them go. — Exodus, xii. 29—33. It is in 
commemoration of this night that the feast of the 
Pass-over was instituted. Yet even now Pharaoh 
repented him and followed the Israelites, only to 
see them miraculously carried through the Red 
Sea, and he himself with all his host swallowed up 
in its merciless flood ; and now it was that Mi- 
riam and her train came forward with dance and 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 33 

timbrel, singing, — "Sing ye to the Lord, for he 
hath triumphed gloriously." Yet three days after 
we find them "murmuring" because the waters 
of Marah were bitter waters. In these deserts 
water is very scarce, and often bitter or salt. They 
had already forgotten the deliverance — the Red 
Sea — the exemption from the plagues. They 
murmured when they should have prayed. The 
water was graciously sweetened by a miracle, for 
God loved his peculiar people. In the wilderness 
of Zin we again find them murmuring against 
Moses and Aaron, and longing for the fleshpots of 
Egypt. Here, too, they forgot God ; but he did 
not forget them. No ! he fed them with manna 
daily and plentifully. Following the pillar of 
cloud they journeyed to Rephidam. Here again 
they wanted water, and the unbelieving Israelites 
again tempted God to forsake them by wishing 
themselves in Egypt and in bondage ; but his love 
was enduring, and he gave them water out of a 
rock." A rock, said to be the one struck, is still 
pointed out to travellers, in which are numerous 
small holes through which the water flowed. The 
Amalekites, descendants of Esau, " a people that 
strike," inhabited and still inhabit that country: 
as Isaac prophesied, they " live by the sword" 
(Gen. 27 — 40). They were a numerous people, 
and fought with a few Israelites; but in vain. 
Moses prayed — Israel fought; and God protected 
his own. At Sinai God made known to Moses 
the laws which the children of Israel were to 
obey, and there Moses received directions how to 

c 5 



34 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

build a tabernacle in which to worship God. It 
might have been hoped that while Moses was on 
the Mount the children of Israel would employ 
themselves as children of God ; but no, although 
the pillar of cloud stood before them, they went to 
Aaron demanding that he should make new gods, 
that should lead them to the Promised Land, for of 
this Moses they wot not what had become of him. 
Aaron yielded to their intreaties, and thus idolatry 
was added to their other sins — open, gross idolatry. 
But Moses, the gentle forgiving Moses, was their 
intercessor — came between them and an angry 
God, who accepted the sacrifice, and the laws 
contained in the first seven chapters of Leviticus 
were made known. 

The numbering of the people took place in the 
wilderness, when it was found, that in this their 
second year, the descendants of one man, Jacob, 
himself not born 366 years before, had, notwith- 
standing the Egyptian servitude, and efforts to 
crush them, reached the astonishing number, 
women and children included, of three millions. 
The multitude now resumed their march, con- 
ducted by the pillar of cloud by day, and the 
pillar of fire by night; but the Israelites fre- 
quently tempted God by murmuring and forget- 
ting all his mercies ; they grew weary of manna, 
and desired flesh. God granted their request, sent 
quails in abundance, and while the meat was in 
their mouths they died. At last they arrived on 
the borders of the Promised Land, and a man 
from each tribe was sent to examine it. After forty 
days they returned, bearing with them one bunch 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS, 35 

of grapes so large that it required two men to 
carry it, describing the country as rich and fertile, 
but full of the tall sons of Anak. Caleb and 
Joshua alone urged their going forward, the other 
ten greatly feared. Again the people wept, mur- 
mured, and wished themselves in Egypt : threat- 
ened to kill Moses and Aaron, and were only 
prevented by a manifest declaration of God's dis- 
pleasure. The punishment awarded by God was 
to remain in the wilderness forty years, until all, 
save Joshua and Caleb, should be dead. It was 
during this time that many fell by the Amalekites, 
and that Dathan, Koran and Abiram were swal- 
lowed up for their sins, and here God made it ma- 
nifest that he had chosen Aaron and the tribe of 
Levi to minister before him. 

During the wanderings of the Israelites, many 
important events had taken place in the surround- 
ing nations, and many changes ; but Canaan, the 
Palestine, remained as now, the same, awaiting 
the arrival of its chosen people. At length, in 
the year 1452 B. C, and the thirty-eighth of their 
wanderings, the Israelites arrived on the borders 
of Canaan. There Miriam died, — she had 
watched over the infant Moses ; sung the praises 
of God at the Red Sea, and journeyed through 
all their difficulties, but was not permitted to 
enter with her people into the Promised Land, — 
here too Moses lost his confidence in God, smote 
the rock, offended, and brought punishment on 
himself and Aaron. During the following two 
years the Israelites were often engaged in war, 

c 6 



36 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

had many difficulties to encounter, and often 
sinned against the Lord by murmuring and re- 
bellion ; it was during that time, in their progress 
onward, that Balak sought Balaam to curse them ; 
but how could Balaam curse whom God had 
blessed ? Still he strove to do so, and met his re- 
ward. The prophecies of Balaam have been 
literally and strikingly fulfilled. At Mount Hor 
Aaron died, not unwillingly ; he was not per- 
mitted to see the long-desired land, and submitted 
patiently. At last, after innumerable difficulties, 
the Israelites encamped on the north of the Dead 
Sea. The Land of Promise was within a few 
hours' journey ; but Moses was not to enter it : 
he saw it from Mount Pisgah, died, and was 
buried of the Lord in a valley, near the mount 
where he died. Joshua was now appointed 
to lead the people into the land that the Lord 
their God had given them : he and Caleb alone re- 
mained of the twelve who had been sent to ex- 
amine the land. It was necessary to cross the 
deep and rapid stream of Jordan ; but the moment 
the feet of those who bare the ark touched the 
water, it no longer flowed, and they passed over on 
dry land. The first place the Israelites ap- 
proached was Jericho, a large and strongly forti- 
fied city, surrounded by a high thick wall. How 
were they to obtain possession of it, " without 
arms, without ladders, or any other necessary 
means of attack ? " In Joshua vi. we learn how 
they were directed to make their assault — no 
doubt, greatly to the amusement of the inhabit- 
ants. But Joshua believed, and at the end of the 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 37 

seventh circuit, on the seventh day, while the 
walls were still standing, and all appeared un- 
moved, he cried, " Shout ! for the Lord hath given 
you the city." They shouted, and the walls fell ! 
The city lay open before them, and " every man 
(went up) straight before him." Now this was 
faith and the reward of faith. Jericho was ut- 
terly destroyed. It had long been a very sinful 
city, and a curse was pronounced against him who 
should attempt to rebuild it. A curse literally 
fulfilled, when Hiel defied the threatening in the 
day of Ahab, 1 Kings, xvi. 24. 

The extraordinary and triumphant siege of 
Gideon, as well as the conquest over the Hittites, 
the Perizites, the Jebusites, the Canaanites, and 
many other nations, are all so beautifully related 
in the twelfth, and nine following chapters of the 
book of Joshua, that to them the young Christian 
is referred for a detailed account of the assistance 
given by God to this his own peculiar family and 
people, and how literally and fully he performed 
his promise given to Moses, (l I will drive them 
out of the land before thee, until thou be increased 
and inherit the land." Exodus, xxiii. 27. — 30. 
And again, " Thou shalt consume all the people 
which the Lord thy God shall deliver thee," &c. 
Deut. vii. 16 — 24. The wars between these na- 
tions is no common history, but one that tells of 
the execution of a dreadful sentence of divine 
wrath against an utterly depraved and wicked 
people : we are expressly told, " For the wicked- 
ness of these nations the Lord doth drive them 



38 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

out before thee." Deut. xviii. 12. The idolatrous 
and sinful practices into which the Israelites af- 
terwards fell, proceeded from their having spared 
some of these wicked people and permitting them 
to live among them. Joshua having settled the 
tribes, and seen the people in possession of the 
land, called them together, exhorted them strongly 
to avoid all approaches to idolatry, reminded them 
of the great things God had done for them, and 
urged them to " choose that day whom they 
would serve," and having fulfilled his appointed 
duties, died, being 110 years old, and was buried 
in Mount Ephraim. 

The decease of Joshua was soon followed by 
that of Eleazer and other elders. They were now 
without a leader; anarchy and confusion soon 
followed. Intercourse with idolaters soon cor- 
rupted the Israelites — " every man did what was 
right in his own eyes," the lusts of the flesh, and 
the lust of the eye were gratified, the progress of 
wickedness was rapid and extensive. A son of 
Levi willingly engaged to perform idolatrous ser- 
vices, and while the son of Eleazer was High 
Priest "the children of Israel did evil in the sight 
of the Lord, and served Balaam," "forsook the 
Lord God of their fathers," "served Baal and 
Ashtaroth, so the Lord delivered them into the 
hands of spoilers." Judges, ii. We find them 
brought repeatedly into servitude. Othmel, the 
first Judge, delivered them from the king of Meso- 
potamia, Ehud from the king of Moab, Shangar 
from the Philistines, and the stately Deborah from 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 39 

the Canaanites. About forty years after this, the 
Midianites, Amalekites, and other tribes, (whose 
manners the Bedouins of the present day resem- 
ble, and whose numbers were so great that they 
are represented as grasshoppers over the land) 
entered Judea, and spread themselves over all the 
fertile districts, penetrating to the shores of the 
Mediterranean sea ; from these terrible marau- 
ders the Lord himself raised up a deliverer. "The 
sword of Jehovah and of Gideon" conquered; the 
undisciplined hordes,filled with panic and fear, turned 
on each other in the darkness of the night ; they 
fled, and Israel was again free. Grideon was ap- 
pointed judge ; after his death an unworthy son 
became judge, when the oldest and perhaps the 
most beautiful fable extant, that of the trees 
choosing a king, was recounted by one w T ho had 
escaped from him. But the children of Israel 
still pursued evil courses to a fearful extent. The 
Philistines and the Ammonites were permitted to 
make a permanent invasion into their country, 
lay waste their lands, and take their children into 
bondage. From this they were delivered by 
Jephtha, who was judge in Israel until about the 
time that Samson was born ; whose extroardinary 
strength, wonderful acts of valour over the Philis- 
tines, folly in committing his secret to a bad 
woman, and the peculiar manner in which he 
revenged himself in his death, is well known and 
beautifully related in the sacred writings. 

Eli was the next judge of Israel: he held that 
office forty years, and presents an awful and 



40 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

striking lesson to parents. A good man, in whose 
family great attention was paid to the Divine in- 
stitutions, but an over-indulgent, weak, and there- 
fore bad father, who did not restrain the wicked 
courses of his profligate sons, which is described 
as " the iniquity which he knoweth." Eli was 
very old when the ark of the Lord, committed to 
the care of his sons, was taken and his sons slain. 
This was a gloomy day for Israel ; no wonder the 
old man and his daughter-in-law both died ; the 
ark for the first time was in the hands of the 
enemies. 

The young Samuel, whose affecting history is 
familiar, appears to be the first of that succession of 
prophets who were raised up by the Jewish nation. 
During the administration of Samuel, national piety 
was in some degree restored, and with it national 
prosperity. The Philistines no longer troubled 
Israel, and Samuel governed in peace for twelve 
years after the first assembling at Mizpeh; but 
the fickle nation now grew weary of judges, 
and, contrary to the judgment of Samuel, desiring 
to have a king, Saul, the Son of Kish, was chosen 
by lot, and very soon after engaged in warlike 
actions with the Philistines, Amalekites, and 
others; but his pride and disobedience to the 
commands of God brought him into continual 
difficulties, and proved that he was a very unfit 
person to govern Judea. The encounter of the 
young David, the son of Jesse, with the formidable 
Goliah of Gath, and its consequences are well 
known to the Scripture reader. So are his friend- 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 41 

ship for Jonathan and his marriage with Michal ; 
but none of these could repress the envy or extin- 
guish the hatred that dwelt in the proud monarch's 
breast. David was obliged to fly from his presence, 
closely pursued by, and often in much danger from, 
Saul. It was during this long and cruel persecu- 
tion that the greater number of David's beautiful 
psalms were written. David was ever ready to 
forbear and pardon the cruelties of Saul, and on 
one occasion resisted the temptation of killing him 
when asleep in his tent ; for, in all his wanderings 
and backslidings, David still had firm confidence in 
the power and goodness of God. The enmity of 
Saul against the son of Jesse did not arise from any 
injurious conduct on the part of the young man, 
neither was it the effect of madness, but the 
workings of an unregenerate evil heart, at enmity 
with God. The life of Saul was very tur- 
bulent, and the latter part rendered particu- 
larly so by the Philistines. Hence we find him 
in his perplexity consulting w T ith wizards, magicians, 
and soothsayers; he had, indeed, departed from 
the living God, and God left him to his enemies, 
who fastened his mutilated remains to the walls of 
the city, and placed his head in the temple of 
Dagon. Four hundred years had now transpired 
since the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan ; 
a period presenting a history widely differing from 
that of every other people on earth. Continually 
a prey to powerful enemies — continually threat- 
ened with extinction — they were still preserved. 
A separate people, an improving, increasing, se- 



42 UNIVEKSAL HISTOEY. 

parate people, notwithstanding every concurring 
circumstance that could lead to an opposite result. 
David was by the death of Saul free from danger, 
and seven years after was made king; his first 
care was to bring the kingdom into order ; he re- 
moved his family to the city, which he had built 
after gaining the stronghold of Zion, and called it 
Jerusalem; he removed the ark from Gilead to 
Jerusalem, and this is supposed to have given 
cause for the 24th, 132nd, 105th, 96th, and 106th 
Psalms ; he planned the Temple, was successful in 
war, and provided for the family of Saul : hitherto 
all was right, David served the Lord, and the Lord 
prospered all his ways ; but David grew indolent, 
and indolence led to adultery and murder; he 
married the widow ; but the reproof of Nathan 
awakened his sleeping conscience ; his repentance 
was deep and sincere, and the birth of Solomon 
was a pledge of forgiveness ; but peace was no 
more for David ; his sons grew up rebellious and 
sinful ; like Eli, he had been a fond, but careless 
parent : too late he wept this fault ; his darling, 
Absalom was slain in the wood of Ephraim, and 
three years famine succeeded : the Philistines took 
up arms, and, contrary to the Divine precepts, 
David numbered the people, now amounting to 
1,300,000 fighting men; for this crime heavy 
punishments followed; feeble and wasted, his 
grey hairs brought down with sorrow to the grave, 
he gave his son Solomon directions, explaining 
the plan he had designed for the Temple, and 
slept with his fathers. 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 43 

Solomon succeeded his father, and began his 
reign by offering a thousand burnt offerings, 
and humbly confessing he was as a little child, 
prayed not for earthly goods, but an understand- 
ing heart. His prayer was answered: "his wis- 
dom far excelled that of the most renowned sages 
of his time ;" his judgment was clear, his govern- 
ment strong and prosperous; his dominions ex- 
tended from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, 
— from the Orontes to the Red Sea and the Per- 
sian Gulph ; he " had peace on all sides around 
him." In happy alliance with Hiram, king of 
Tyre, who supplied him with many materials, 
the Temple was completed and dedicated to Je- 
hovah with grand solemnity. All Israel assembled 
on the occasion; the ark was borne within the 
vail by the Levites, and " the glory of the Lord 
filled the house." Solomon then ascended a 
throne of brass and offered up a prayer, at once 
fervent and pathetic, solemn and full of humility, 
the language of a sinner at the footstool of Divine 
mercy. 1 Kings viii. Solomon here seems to be 
a type of the Saviour, the intercessor for his 
people before the throne of grace. Solomon also 
built himself a palace, of which he says, " I builded 
me houses — I planted me vineyards — I made me 
orchards and gardens — I planted trees in them of 
all kinds of fruit — I made me pools of ^water to 
water therewith the wood that bringeth forth trees." 
Eccl. ii. 4. The only remains of these works that 
now exist, are the pools of Solomon, situated to 
the south of Bethlehem. The Divine Songs of 



44 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Solomon, the Proverbs, so full of piety, charity, 
prudence, and benevolence, and the excellent sys- 
tem of ethics set forth in them, all attest his wis- 
dom, piety, and humility. The pen lingers — 
it is painful to turn from a picture so rich and 
glowing in " the beauty of godliness," to the luxu- 
rious, idolatrous, lascivious monarch, surrounded 
by a harem of 700 princesses, and 300 of lower 
rank, going after the idols they worshipped — 
burning incense and offering sacrifice with them 
— until he provoked the Lord to declare that the 
kingdom should be rent from his family ; one 
tribe only should be left, the united tribes of Ju- 
dah and Benjamin, in which Jerusalem was situ- 
ated, and this was spared for his servant David's 
sake, from whose family the Messiah was to pro- 
ceed. " The seed of him that loveth him he will 
not take away; wherefore, he gave a remnant 
unto Jacob, and out of him a root unto David." 
Thus rested Solomon with his fathers. 

Solomon left but one son, called Rehoboam, 
who must have been born the year he came to the 
crown, and who, it appears, never gave his father 
much of hope or comfort, or reason to expect 
good of his future character. From the early 
days of the Jewish nation, there had existed an 
envious, unhappy feeling between the sons of 
Ephraim and the sons of Judah ; the pre-eminence 
gained by the latter had ever been offensive to the 
other tribes. Before, therefore, receiving Reho- 
boam as king, they sent for Jeroboam, who was 
an exile in Egypt, to propose such measures as 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 45 

they judged necessary. Rehoboam hesitated, and 
the unruly spirits of the leaders at once renounced 
all allegiance to the son of David. Choosing Je- 
roboam as their king, Judah and Beniamin alone 
remained faithful to Rehoboam. Jeroboam in- 
troduced a new religious system throughout the 
ten tribes : appointed Dan in the north and 
Bethel in the centre, as places for sacrifice, instead 
of Jerusalem, and set up "calves" of gold, which 
quickly introduced idolatrous worship among a 
people but too ready to follow after strange idols. 
The Levites refused to assist at this, and Jeroboam 
himself officiated as priest. A prophet from Judah 
denounced his unholy altar, which was shaken by 
an invisible hand, and the arm of Jeroboam wi- 
thered. The alarmed king prayed the prophet to 
restore his arm, but did not pray to God to restore 
his heart ; on the contrary, continued his idolatrous 
courses. Rehoboam, in the mean time, took pru- 
dent measures for strengthening his kingdom, re- 
ceiving those who were driven from, or grew 
weary of the revolted provinces, and during the 
three years that he continued in these good courses, 
his kingdom flourished, and the blessing of God 
was upon him ; but he then fell into idolatrous prac- 
tices, and was punished by an invasion of Shisshak, 
king of Egypt. Rehoboam died after a reign of 
seventeen years, and Abijah, his son, reigned in 
his stead. Although the provinces under Jero- 
boam formed by far the larger portion of the Is- 
raelites, yet the promised seed being in the tribe 
of Judah, the part left with Rehoboam must be 



46 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

considered the Israel of God. The government of 
Jeroboam ended in his son, who was killed by the 
Philistines, and although the kingdom of David 
was divided, it may be observed through the whole 
history of Judah and Israel, that the Lord Jeho- 
vah exercised the same direct, providential inter- 
ference with both branches as heretofore, and the 
Jewish nation was still, in eifect, a theocracy. 
Asa was a good man and king, who rooted idolatry 
out of the land, and many flocked to him from 
Israel, ce where they saw that the Lord his God 
was with him." Jehosaphat, his son, followed the 
" way- of David and his father ; his heart was 
lifted up in prayer to the Lord ;" he fortified the 
cities, and sent priests and Levites through the 
land to instruct the ignorant ; and thus the Lord 
made " even his enemies to be at peace with him." 
It was at this time that Ahab, king of Israel, was 
led into so great wickedness by the beauty and 
fascinations of the imperious and sinful Jezebel, 
daughter of the king of the Zidonians, and aunt 
of Dido, the foundress of Carthage, that we are 
told " he did more to provoke the Lord God of 
Israel to anger than all the kings of Israel that 
went before him." Then rose up the prophet 
Elijah as a light out of dense darkness ; " and his 
word burned like a lamp." While the hills were 
yet smoking with sacrifices to Ashtaroth and the 
groves resounded with the wild music of their 
rites, Elijah suddenly appeared and announced that 
no rain should fall for three years. Long did the 
holy man remain hidden from the furious Ahab, 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 47 

first among the rocks, fed by the birds of the air, 
and refreshed by the stream that ran at his feet, 
then sheltered and miraculously fed in the hovel 
of a poor widow, who reverenced him as a pro- 
phet, a follower of Jehovah, and willingly shared 
with him what appeared to be her last meal. But 
his God and Master manifested his power and 
the love he bore his servant, by answering of 
prayer, by sending fire from heaven, by the death 
of the idol prophets, and by sending rain on the 
the earth. Jezebel had witnessed all this. She 
saw the earth refreshed, famine stayed, and her 
subjects rescued from starvation, but she hated 
Elijah, and resolved on his death; because her 
prophets were no more ; those who had ministered 
to her pleasure were gone ; but the Lord will not 
forget his own; death was not for Elijah; he escaped 
and dwelt in rocky Horeb for a time, then dwelt 
in the valley of Jordan. Soon after this, both 
Ahab and Jezebel came to an untimely end. 
and agreeably to the word of the Lord, " dogs 
licked their blood." 

The striking events of the prophet's life 
and death, or rather his translation, together with 
those of his servant Elisha, during the reigns of 
Ahaziah and Jehu are so well known to the 
young reader of Scripture, that all repetition were 
useless. 

Jeroboam second, king of Israel, died 793 B. c. 
He recovered the district east of Jordan, and by 
conquests from the Syrians enlarged his dominions 
even to Damascus. It was during his reign that 



48 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

the prophets Hosea and Amos wrote. Hosea 
foretold the judgments to be sent upon Jerusalem, 
and carried his views forward even to the coming 
of Christ in the flesh. Amos saw, in vision, the 
destruction of the idolatrous temple of Samaria. 
It was a dark and dismal period in which there 
" was no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge, in this 
land." In Judah, Uzziah reigned long and pros- 
perously : he was skilled in the arts of war, yet he 
loved the peaceful occupations of husbandry. 
The Olympiads began to be celebrated in Greece 
during: the reign of Uzziah. It was in the last 
year of Uzziah that Isaiah was called to the pro- 
phetic office. Joel also prophesied at this time. 
The early portions of the prophecies of Isaiah 
speak of the judgments then at hand, — of the 
oppression of the rulers, — the vanity and pride of 
the Jewish females. The state of Judah is repre- 
sented under the parable of a vineyard, Isa. v., a 
striking illustration of a people whose vineyards 
clothed the hills on every side. Jotham succeeded 
his father as king of Judah. He became mighty, 
because he established the ways of the Lord. He 
built a new gate to the Temple and improved Je- 
rusalem ; but the voice of Micah was heard, " Arise 
ye and depart, for this is not your rest." During 
the reign of Jotham, Rome was built, B.C. 753 ; 
that city by whose power Jerusalem was finally 
destroyed. Ahaz succeeded Jotham, an idolater ; 
and worse than any preceding king of Judah. 
In his reign the king of Assyria carried away 
captive the tribes beyond Jordan, and some of the 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 49 

inhabitants of Israel : this was the first captivity. 
The last days of the kingdom of Israel were now 
close at hand. Unwillingly the Lord gave up his 
people, but they would not have him for their 
God. The reign of Hezekiah was very important. 
" Like unto him was there no king before him." In 
the first days of his reign he opened the Temple, 
and assembling the priests and Levites charged 
them to cleanse and set in order the house of God 
without delay. The idols were destroyed, and 
the people showed their faith by their fruits. At 
this period, the first universal monarchy, that of 
Assyria, was at its most palmy state. Involved 
in war with Egypt, but still a mighty power, Ca- 
naan, from its situation between the contending 
powers, was often the cause, and sometimes the 
seat of war. Hoshea, king of Israel, had formed 
an alliance with Egypt, and refused to continue 
tributary to Assyria. In the fourth year of He- 
zekiah, Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, besieged 
Samaria, and after a siege of three years took it, 
and utterly destroyed Samaria, beautiful in its 
situation, and rich in its fertility. He caused all 
that remained of the seven tribes between Jordan 
and the sea to be carried away to a remote part 
of his dominions, far in the East, where many of 
their descendants still continue. In the fourteenth 
year of Hezekiah, Sennacherib invaded Judah, 
but Hezekiah purchased peace by the payment of 
a large sum. Soon after he proceeded towards 
Jerusalem, Isaiah, xxii. 1. ; but though close to 
the holy city, Sennacherib shot not an arrow 

D 



50 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

against her walls. A miraculous blast in one 
night struck 185,000 of his army with death, and 
he was afterwards murdered by his own sons while 
at worship in an idol temple. Hezekiah reigned 
twenty-nine years, and then departed in peace, and 
was honourably buried in the "chiefest"of the 
sepulchres of the sons of David. These sepul- 
chres are supposed to be an elaborate work cut 
out of the solid rock, and still existing to the north 
of Jerusalem. This is the only remains of ancient 
Jerusalem which can be traced satisfactorily. 
Here are several rooms with recesses for bodies, 
and places for sarchophagi, with doors, one of 
which Maundrell found with hinges on it, and in 
its place. 

The accuracy of history with the predictions 
of prophecy are too remarkable to pass unnoticed. 
Babylon, Tyre, Egypt, and Idumea, are all pre- 
cisely in the state in which the book written 2000 
years since described they would be ; in fact an 
accurate account of the downfall of various na- 
tions may be drawn from predictions written while 
they were in their bright and palmy state. The 
most wretched reign in the kingdom of Judah w r as 
that of Manasseh, son of the good Hezekiah ; he 
restored all the idol worship, sacrificed children to 
Moloch, and committed acts of the deepest de- 
pravity. It is supposed that Isaiah, who was se- 
cretary to Hezekiah, addressed the prophecy to 
Shebna, recorded in Isa. xxii. 15., while superin- 
tending the workmanship of a sepulchre, which, 
giving offence to the proud apostate, Isaiah was 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 51 

seized and sawn asunder with a wooden saw. 
Many years after, the crimes of Manasseh, " that 
which he did in Jerusalem," are mentioned as a 
primary cause of the Jews being driven from all 
the nations of the earth. Jer. xv. 4. In the 
twenty-second year of his reign the Assyrians, 
under Eserhaddon, invaded Judah, and carried 
Manasseh a prisoner into Babylon : he also took 
away the remnants of the tribes left in Israel. The 
duration of Manasseh's imprisonment is uncertain : 
he, however, returned to Jerusalem, fortified it, 
died, and was buried. Josiah was a righteous 
young prince, and did much to restore the wor- 
ship of the living God, causing a more solemn 
passover to be observed than during any former 
period. In his reign the prophets Jeremiah, Ze- 
phaniah, and Habakkuk wrote their prophecies. 
In a battle against Pharaoh Necho, on the plains 
of Megiddo, Josiah was mortally wounded: he died, 
and the "Lamentations of Jeremiah" record his 
virtues. It is said of Jehoiakim his son that he 
"did evil in the sight of the Lord:" he was but 
the king of a subdued people, and a vassal to 
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, who, in the 
fourth year of his reign, besieged and took Jeru- 
salem, and carried away some of the sacred vessels 
which he placed in the temple of Belus at Babylon, 
also some of the princes and nobles, among whom 
was Daniel and his companions. This may be 
considered the beginning of the Babylonish cap- 
tivity, B.C. 605. 

Yet the Temple still towered above its spacious 
d 2 



52 UNIVERSAL HISTORr. 

courts, and the walls of the city remained ; but a 
further judgment was to come. In the year 
B. C. 597, Nebuchadnezzar again invaded Judea, 
dethroned the son of Jehoiakim, and made Zede- 
kiah king in his stead. A large number of cap- 
tives were then sent away to weaken the resources 
of the rebellious land: they were taken to Ba- 
bylon and to various parts of Mesopotamia : among 
them was the prophet Ezekiel. The Jewish 
nation still did evil. Zedekiah revolted against 
the Assyrians, and joined the Egyptians. This 
caused the siege and destruction of Jerusalem, 
B. c. 586 ; when, after a frightful scene of slaughter, 
all that remained of the inhabitants of the land 
were cleared away, except a few of the poor, who 
were left as vine-dressers and husbandmen. Of 
the fugitives dispersed through the country, 
many of them died by their own hands. (Je- 
remiah, xl. 7 — 13. xli. 11.) Many of the sur- 
vivors went into Egypt, where they perished ; 
others fled into adjacent countries. Thus disap- 
peared from Palestine those sinful people so often 
rebuked by the prophets ; but no invading troops 
occupied the land. Judea was suffered to remain 
uncultivated during the captivity: the country 
was left vacant, not colonised by heathens as 
Samaria had been, nor occupied by a population 
arising from the scanty remnant left by their con- 
querors. Thus Nebuchadnezzar was overruled, 
and acted contrary to his usual policy. But thus 
and thus only could the denunciations of the 
prophets be fulfilled* The Divine declaration had 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 53 

gone forth. The ten tribes were not to return to 
their possessions ; therefore a heathen colony was 
permitted to settle therein. The tribes of Judah 
and Benjamin were again to occupy Jerusalem and 
the land of their forefathers ; therefore that country 
was reserved for them. No opposition was of- 
fered to their return ; they could all dwell in their 
cities without fear or difficulty. At the time 
when the Jews were thus led into captivity, the 
two ruling powers over the then known world 
were the Babylonians and the Medes. The do- 
minions of the latter were over the country east 
of the river Tigris. The former comprehended all 
that had been the Assyrian empire, together with 
countries towards the west. Babylon was the 
capital of this large empire instead of Nineveh, of 
which no traces now remain. It was the desire of 
Nebuchadnezzar to render the vast city of Babylon, 
which was situated in a plain and divided into two 
parts by the Euphrates, rich and populous. He 
therefore treated the Jews with more respect and 
consideration than they might have experienced 
had his city been fully peopled. Daniel and his 
companions were very young, not more than 
eighteen years of age, and Nebuchadnezzar caused 
them to be instructed in the Chaldee language, 
changed their names to such as sounded well in 
the palace of Babylon, familiarised them to heathen 
customs, and did all in his power to fit them to 
fill high stations, and forget the land of their 
fathers ; but Daniel and his companions were 
influenced by the fear of Jehovah, and their his- 
D 3 



54 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

tory instructs young people in the immense im- 
portance of avoiding compliance with the sinful 
pursuits of those around them. Ezekiel also was 
among the captives, and his book of prophecies 
will be read with great interest by all who have, 
or may observe how literally they were fulfilled. 
Of his death there is no account : but a building a 
few miles south-east of the ruins of Babylon is 
even yet pointed out as his tomb. 

Nebuchadnezzar appears to have been raised up 
an instrument in the hand of God to perform this 
his work of punishment. Hence he is called " the 
rod of God's anger," and " the servant of Jehovah." 
He subjugated all the nations round Palestine, and 
carried his army into Egypt, besieged and destroyed 
the powerful city of Tyre, and laid the land deso- 
late for forty years. Having completed the con- 
quest of the then known world, Nebuchadnezzar 
returned to Babylon as its acknowledged master, 
R. C. 570, which was the beginning of his universal 
dominion; but his visions, dreams, and impiety, 
recorded by their living witness the prophet 
Daniel, was cut short by perhaps the most 
awfully striking event on record, and this mighty 
monarch became "as a beast of the field." Bel- 
shazzar, his grandson, did not profit by the fate of 
his grandfather, but lived a few years in riot, ex- 
travagance, and debauchery, notwithstanding the 
warnings of the prophet, until alarmed by the 
handwriting on the wall, when too late, for very 
soon his kingdom was taken from him by Darius 
the Mede, who placed Daniel at the head of his go- 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 5 b 

verninent, which produced such burning jealousies 
among other influential Jews, as led to the trial 
of the prophet's faith and firmness, and produced 
another instance of God's preservation of his own 
faithful and devoted children. When Darius had 
reigned only two years, he died, and his nephew, 
Cyrus, who had been designated by name more 
than a century prior to this, as the conqueror of 
Babylon, and the restorer of the Jewish nation 
from captivity, Isa. xlv. 14., reigned in his stead. 
Cyrus continued to favour Daniel, and to give 
great advantages to the Jews, who now filled 
almost every post of honour or renown. All 
through the captivity, though Nebuchadnezzar by 
his conquests mixed up in one mass as it were 
all the nations of the earth in Babylon, the Jews 
continued to dwell there a separate people, from 
the depressed days of their early captivity, till 
now, when the spoils of their land were to be seen 
in their temples, and the chief men of the state 
were Jews. At this time, it is clear from ancient 
records, they were visited, consulted, studied, and 
respected, by all the philosophers of Europe and 
Asia. Among one of the earliest acts of Cyrus, 
after attaining the full sovereignty, Was that de- 
cree named by Ezra, i. 1 — 4., authorising the re- 
turn of the ancient people of Jehovah, in which 
he says the Lord God of heaven had charged him 
to rebuild the Temple : he therefore offers them 
every assistance. There was but little to tempt 
the Jews to return to the land of Judah, and very 
much to induce them to remain. Josephus speaks 
D 4 



56 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

of the ten tribes remaining beyond the Euphrates 
as so exceedingly increased, that in his day they 
could scarcely be numbered ; but where are they 
now ? Recent travellers speak of districts peo- 
pled by Jews, in an ignorant degraded state ; 
wherever they have incorporated with other na- 
tions, they have fallen off. But there are yet a 
few who have not bowed the knee to Baal, Israel 
still dwells alone as " a nation among the nations." 
The Jews have a proverb that " the bran returned 
to Jerusalem, the fine flour remained in Babylon." 
Of the twenty-four courses of the priests, only 
four returned. The first division was led by 
Zerubbabel, a prince of royal blood, called in Ezra 
Sheshbazzar, and in Haggai Zechariah ; these 
were four thousand five hundred in number, and 
the work of erecting the Tenmle commenced as 
soon as they arrived. They were brought back to 
the very spot where their former stately building 
had waved its tower above the courts, and though 
they had difficulties, every prospect of a goodly 
temple was before them. 

The Samaritans, colonists placed in the country 
of the ten tribes by Esarhaddon, who worshipped 
God in conjunction with idols, were desirous of 
helping the sons of Judah ; but they refused the 
unhallowed union, and the building was conse- 
quently stayed ; thence grew that bitter hatred of 
the Jews towards the Samaritans, that they would 
not allow a Jew to have any dealings with a Sa- 
maritan, which we find recorded in the New Tes- 
tament. The building of the Temple did not pro- 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 57 

ceed for ten years. The people had been busy in 
preparing houses for themselves, and makiug to 
themselves vineyards and olive-grounds. Cyrus 
was dead, and Darius Hystaspes sent home many 
more of the Jews, who brought valuable offerings 
for the Temple. The building was resumed, and 
the city became large and populous ; and in the 
sixth year of Darius the Temple was completed, 
and the passover celebrated there. Sacrifices and 
sin-offerings were offered by the Prophets Ezra 
and Zechariah, who both prophesied at this time 
of the future Messiah, the Saviour of men. The 
Jews had a high respect for Ezra, who spent 
much time in Jerusalem in collecting the Scrip- 
tures and remodelling the laws. It was while he 
was so employed that a wicked plot was formed 
by Haman to destroy all the Jews in Persia. 
The plot was discovered by Mordecai the Jew, 
and frustrated by the prudence and courage of 
Esther : the tale is beautifully related in the 
Book of Esther. The Jews commemorate this 
deliverance to the present day by their Feast of 
Purim. At the site of the ancient Ecbatana, an 
ancient tomb, containing two sarcophagi of dark 
wood, richly carved, are said to be those of Esther 
and her uncle Mordecai. 

From this time we find the Persian monarchs 
favouring the Jews. Nehemiah was permitted to 
repair the walls of Jerusalem : this was completed 
in fifty-two days ; but he had much to suffer 
from the Samaritans and other enemies. Still he 
persevered in building up the high places, and 
D 5 



58 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

restoring Jerusalem to her ancient splendour. But 
wickedness was again making rapid strides among 
this rebellious and stiff-necked people. Marriages 
had taken place between them and the sons and 
daughters of the surrounding idolatrous nations. 
The Sabbath was no longer a holy day sacred to 
the Lord ; they had " corrupted the covenant of 
Levi," and taken to them many and strange wives ; 
so that their language became a mongrel speech 
of Ashdod, Moab, and Ammon. 

After the death of Nehemiah, Judea was go- 
verned by high priests, of whom little that is good 
can be recorded. 

The Jews now became so connected with their 
rulers, the Persians, that their history, for some 
ages, can only be gleaned from that of Persia. 

During the rapid and extraordinary conquests 
of Alexander, we find him hastening on with 
intent to destroy Jerusalem, which event, accord- 
ing to Josephus, was prevented by the prayers of 
Jaddua and the people, so that, when Alexander 
saw the multitude in white garments, and the 
priests in their robes, he offered obeisance as an 
act of adoration. The next day Alexander de- 
manded what favours the Jews required : Jaddua 
besought that they might be allowed to live ac- 
cording to the laws of their fathers. Alexander 
granted all he asked, and promised the same for 
the Jews of Babylonia and Media. Had Alexander 
lived, much might have been done to prevent the 
division of the nation ; but according to the pro- 
phecy, that a mighty prince should stand up, 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 59 

"his kingdom shall be broken, and shall be 
divided toward the four winds of heaven," he 
died, and his kingdom was divided between his 
generals. Under the distracted government that 
followed the Jews suffered severely, as well as 
under Ptolemy Lagus and Antigonus ; the 
former of whom, hearing the Jews were so scru- 
pulous in their observance of the Sabbath as not 
to defend their city, entered it on that day, and 
committed dreadful outrages. The priests are de- 
scribed at this time, with the people, to be in such 
close adherence to the law, as to suffer death rather 
than break its precepts. They had only one forti- 
fied city in their own land, in which was a small 
square building with two doors, a square altar of 
unwrought stones, a golden candlestick, and altar 
for the priests, where they were employed night 
and day in performing certain purifications. 

The dominions of Alexander were now divided 
between Cassander, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and 
Seleucus. Ptolemy received Syria, India, Egypt, 
Arabia, and part of Asia Minor. Under him the 
Jews enjoyed quiet, and the high priest " Simon 
the Just" finally completed the canon of the Old 
Testament: he was succeeded by his brother 
Eleazer, in whose priesthood Antigonus Sachasus, 
a man of great piety and learning, urged so 
strongly the doctrine of serving God from prin- 
ciples of love and affection, and regard for the 
divine perfection, that his disciples eventually de- 
nied the resurrection, and, from a popular man 
among them named Sadoc, they were called Sad- 
D 6 



60 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

ducees, and were among the most bitter perse- 
cutors of the early Christians. Simon II. suc- 
ceeded to the priesthood in the reign of Ptolemy 
Philopater. This king would have denied the holy 
sanctuary at Jerusalem, but was prevented by a 
sudden loss of the use of his limbs, an infliction 
for which he revenged himself on the Jews in the 
most cruel manner, by putting to death all who 
would not apostatise : they were sent in chains to 
Alexandria, crowded into the hippodrome, and 
trampled to death by elephants. Great numbers 
were drowned in the Nile. This monster in hu- 
man form died, and was succeeded by Antiochus 
the Great, under whom the Jews found some fa- 
vour and protection : he sent colonies of them into 
Lydia, Phrygia, and other parts, the descendants 
of whom were found by the Apostles in Asia 
Minor, as mentioned in the Acts. At this period 
the Romans were become a very powerful people, 
the fourth kingdom, " strong as iron," were making 
great incursions into Greece, and the Eastern ru- 
lers were rapidly bending before them. Antiochus, 
being joined by Hannibal, opposed the Romans, 
and was defeated by them at Thermopylae, and 
again at Magnesia : in attempting to plunder the 
temple of Jupiter Belus, he and his escort were 
slain, B.C. 187. On the accession of the second 
Antiochus, the Assyrians flattered him with the 
title of Epiphanes, or "illustrious;" but his in- 
sane, cruel, and disgraceful conduct caused it to 
be changed to " madman." Though a practical 
atheist, he pretended great reverence for Jupiter 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. t)l 

Olympius, and tried to force the Jews into a wor- 
ship of that deity : not without effect : the Jews 
again fell into idolatrous practices ; some from ex- 
amples, others influenced by fear, others hoping 
to escape persecutions; yet disturbances arose, 
and Antiochus hastened to Jerusalem, took it by 
storm, and plundered the city. In a massacre which 
lasted three days, 40,000 were slain, and as many 
taken prisoners. The Syrian king entered the 
sanctuary, plundered it of all its gold and silver, 
caused swine's flesh to be sacrificed on the altar, 
and defiled the whole building by sprinkling it 
with the liquor in which the flesh of these abhorred 
animals had been boiled : daily sacrifices were pro- 
hibited, the public observance of the Jewish re- 
ligion discontinued, and idols set up, and sacrifices 
offered to them, on the altars which had been 
raised to the God of Israel. A decree was sent out 
that it w r as unlawful to worship or use customs 
that were not in conformity with those of the 
Greek heathens. The Jews were compelled to 
go in procession to Bacchus, carrying ivy. Mo- 
thers who had caused their infants to be cir- 
cumcised were with them inhumanly butchered ; 
while others who had gone together into caves to 
keep the Sabbath day, were discovered, and all 
burned together, refusing to defend themselves on 
that sacred day. The Maccabees, destined to be 
their deliverers, were of the tribe of Levi, de- 
scendants of Asmoneus, hence called Asmoneans. 
Mattathius was at the head of the family, and 
with his five sons, Johanan, Simon, Judas, Eleazer, 



62 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

and Jonathan, excited beyond further endurance, 
went through the streets crying, " Whoever is 
zealous for the Lord and maintenance of the cove- 
nant, let him follow me." Many flocked to their 
standard, and an open rebellion ensued. The en- 
raged Antiochus pushed his cruelties to greater 
extremes than ever : every torment that a demo- 
niacal spirit could devise was resorted to. These 
sufferings are described in detail, and with such 
horrifying minuteness in what is termed the fourth 
book of Maccabees in " the Apocrypha," that to 
these records the young reader is referred. The 
sons and followers of Mattathius continued to in- 
crease, and under Judas Maccabeus, the blessing 
of the Most High went forth, the Lord of Hosts 
sustained his army, appeared in favour of his own 
people, and again the Jews were free. The pages 
of history contain repeated instances of successful 
national resistance, when the feelings of the peo- 
ple have been thoroughly excited by oppression 
and wrong, particularly religious oppression ; but 
the resistance and ultimate triumph of the Jews, 
unaided by any other country or people, stands 
unequalled, almost, if not entirely alone, and won- 
derfully shows forth the power of the Lord of 
Hosts exerted in behalf of his people. The 9th 
chapter of Daniel is considered by Hales to de- 
scribe the events of this reign. 

From this time, 143 b. c, the Jews reckon the 
independence of their country. Simon was then 
high priest and leader, and " the land of Judah 
was quiet all the days of Simon." To him sue- 



HISTOEY OF THE JEWS. 63 

ceeded John Hyrcanus, who demolished Samaria, 
and continued to increase in power and enlarge 
his dominions until they equalled those of David 
and Solomon in extent. He built a palace or castle 
in Jerusalem, in which the Asmonean princes lived. 
Judah now again ranked high among nations ; but 
a worm was ever at the root, and the Pharisees 
and Sadducees introduced new religious dogmas, 
while luxury, and its accompaniment, tyranny, 
made rapid strides. So that Whiston remarks : 
" Now follows the profane and tyrannical Jewish 
monarchy : first of the Asmoneans or Maccabees, 
and then of Herod the Great, the Idumean, until 
the coming of the Messiah." After the death of 
Hyrcanus, we find the Romans very troublesome 
to the Jews, and as they were then pushing their 
conquests over all the face of the earth, having 
conquered Greece, they led their troops into Asia 
Minor. At the same time that Egypt was sinking 
under their power; Tadmor, in the Wilderness, 
built by Solomon ; Tyre, the pride of nations and 
the seat of commerce ; Damascus, the mother of 
manufactures; and Jerusalem, the city of the 
Lord, all fell before the Caesars and their vic- 
torious generals. Asia Minor, in common with 
other countries, became tributary to Rome, and 
Herod was appointed ruler. Herod signalised 
his reign by erecting stately buildings, par- 
ticularly one on Mount Zion; he rebuilt Sa- 
maria and called it the city of Augustus. The 
whole nation of the Jews were required to take 
an oath of allegiance to Augustus, whose power it 



64 TJNIVEKSAL HISTOKT. 

was useless to dispute ; thus the sceptre, in effect, 
departed from Judah. The temple of Janus was 
shut, and universal peace reigned over the earth. 
And now, in rapid succession, came the most 
important events. The vision that appeared to 
Zecharias in the Temple ; the Annunciation made 
by the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary; the 
birth of John the Baptist ; and the birth of 
Jesus the Messiah, at Bethlehem, the true Shiloh, 
the Prince of Peace, had now come, and the 
sceptre had departed from Judah. Believers 
among the Jews, in all ages, had respect to the 
promised Messiah; yet they rejected him — would 
not receive the Lord of life and glory, but cru- 
cified him betwixt two thieves: thus drawing 
on themselves the ruin of their city and Temple, 
within forty years after Christ had uttered the 
prediction, that not one stone of the Temple 
should stand upon another. Titus drove a plough- 
share over the site of Jerusalem ; they were dis- 
persed throughout the Roman empire, and have 
remained scattered to the present time. Still they 
have ever remained a separate and distinct people, 
and have ever been allowed to set up a synagogue 
wherever they dwelt. A late traveller observes : 
" In looking at the barren hills of Judea, where 
the beast wanders not, the bird flies not, and the 
grass grows not, the impress of the curse of God 
may be seen in more dreadful characters than are 
to be seen elsewhere on this side the grave." " Zion 
is a wilderness — Jerusalem is a desolation." 



AFKICA. 65 



AFRICA. 



The peninsula of Africa forms one of the great 
divisions of the world, the outlines of which are 
very clearly defined. It was known to the ancients, 
and the theatre of many remarkable transactions 
upwards of 3000 years ago. Yet very little either 
is, or ever has been, known of this mysterious 
country. Our ships have for three centuries 
sailed round its lands, and visited various parts of 
the border, which, like a fringe of comparative ci- 
vilisation, surrounds this peninsula; but of the 
vast interior, its past or present history, we 
are still ignorant. With the exception of Abys- 
sinia, Sierra Leone, and the country near, and 
that part of South Africa which extends from the 
Cape of Good Hope to Ruveechane, no part of 
Africa has been explored by the Christian mis- 
sionary. The curiosity of Science is baffled in her 
searches. Commerce is arrested in its progress by 
insurmountable barriers ; even conquest itself has 
been turned aside by fiery deserts and impassable 
mountains. By far the greater part of this large 
continent is enveloped in darkness; its history, 
and the origin of its inhabitants utterly unknown. 



66 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

There seems to have been but two aboriginal 
tribes. Of these are the inhabitants of the moun- 
tains, called by the ancients Ethiopeans, by the 
moderns, Negroes; and the inhabitants of the 
plains, known to the former as Lybians, to the 
latter as Barbars. Of the four great continents, 
Africa is the lowest in the moral and intellectual 
scale, and dividing the continent into four quar- 
ters, the northern ranks lowest in Christian or" 
moral advantages. On the eastern side, through 
Egypt and Abyssinia; on the west and around the 
Cape, the missionary labours and efforts at im- 
provement have worked, and are working much 
real good, spiritually and temporally. On the 
south-east coast, and in Lower Guinea, their la- 
bours have been owned, and civilisation and 
Christianity are spreading, though slowly ; but in 
the north, the obstacles opposed to the preaching 
of the gospel are numerous, and apparently in- 
surmountable. Dr. Munter affirms, that the 
Christian faith was introduced by some Christians 
from Rome, as early as the second century ; but if 
so, every trace of it is gone. The greater part of 
the African tribes are Fetish worshippers, and 
believe in witchcraft and conjuration : they adore 
a good and an evil principle. In some parts of 
the north, and in central Africa, the doctrines 
of Mahomet prevail. Egypt has been called 
" the connecting link between Africa and the 
civilised world : " it belongs to classic and sacred 
history; yet some slight notice may prove inter- 
esting. The discoveries of Burckhardt, Belzoni, 



AFKICA. 67 

Hamilton, Gosling, and others, have lifted the 
veil from her mysterious hieroglyphics, and 
brought the present generation into familiar ac- 
quaintance with her pyramids, temples and ca- 
verns, gods, mummies and amulets; the last fifty 
years has thrown more light on these subjects 
than preceding ages. Within a few generations 
after the deluge, Egypt had become a great na- 
tion, under the government of a monarch, and 
was acquainted with trade and handicraft. Agri- 
culture was the employment of a large portion of 
the inhabitants ; ,the pastoral occupations too 
were followed; mechanical arts were not unknown; 
houses were built of brick, and the bodies of the 
dead very curiously embalmed. Strangers bar- 
tered with them for corn, giving spices, pearls, 
and stones : they were in this position when the 
brethren of Joseph were driven by famine from 
the parched plains of Syria into this fertile and 
plentiful land. The kingdom of Thebes, in Upper 
Egypt, is supposed to have been founded soon 
after the dispersion of the sons of Noah, though 
the name does not occur in the sacred writings. 
The seat of monarchy was afterwards transferred 
to Memphis, and so continued until about 567 
B. c, when it was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. 
The ancient periods of Egyptian history were 
preserved by hieroglyphics, known only to the 
priests, who affirmed that they could trace their 
history through a period of 50,000 years. Menes 
they said, was the first king of mortal birth: all 
before him had been immortals. Inroads appear 



08 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

to have been made by tribes of Phoenician and 
Arabian origin ; these latter were the shepherd 
kings who are said to have governed Egypt 511 
years. Sesostris is said to have lived in the time 
of Moses : he conquered Libya, invaded Asia as 
far as the Indian ocean, fortified Egypt, dug canals, 
built temples, and covered the land with columns, 
obelisks, and arches. After him came Kemphis, 
Cheops, and Cephren, the builders of the pyramids 
which still stand the wonders of the world. About 
617 B. c. this country became involved in wars 
with Southern Asia. Josiah king of Judah, being 
in alliance with the Assyrian king, refused to let the 
Egyptian army pass through his kingdom : a battle 
was fought in the vale of Megiddo, in which Jo- 
siah was killed. Many kings and princes followed 
until Psammenitus, who was the last native so- 
vereign of Egypt. Thus has the prophecy of 
Ezekiel, ch. xxx. 13. been fulfilled, " There shall 
be no more a prince of the land of Egypt." On 
the death of Alexander the conqueror of Egypt, 
Ptolemy Lagus, afterwards called Sotor, attained 
the viceroyship. He beautified Alexandria, and 
made it the capital of his dominions ; added Pa- 
lestine, Syria, and Phoenicia to his dominions, and 
died 284 b. c. He was succeeded by Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, who founded Ptolemeus and built 
the pharos or lighthouse. During the succeeding 
reigns of Ptolemies, the country was torn to pieces 
by a series of civil contests, and exposed to dis- 
gusting scenes of vice, extravagance, and every 
dreadful enormity. "I will set the Egyptians 



AFRICA. 69 

against the Egyptians, and they shall fight every 
man against his brother, and every one against his 
neighbour." Isaiah, xix. 2. The death of Cleo- 
patra closed the dynasty of the Ptolemies, which 
had lasted 294 years, and Egypt became a Roman 
province. Christianity was introduced into Egypt 
at an early period ; for there was, at the outpour- 
ing of the Holy Ghost in Jerusalem, proselytes 
from Egypt, Libya, and Cyrene; and the extensive 
commerce of Alexandria, and its proximity to Pa- 
lestine, would offer an easy entrance for the Gospel. 
In this land of superstition the first example of a 
monastic life was given by Anthony of saintly fame ; 
and so well did it please the Egyptians, that in a 
short time nearly half the men were monks ; but 
the church of Alexandria became corrupt at a 
very early date. For several centuries Egypt was 
governed by the descendants of Omar as a Ma- 
homedan province. In 1171 Saladin, a man of 
great power, resolution, and ambition, assumed 
the whole command while a vizier, and in 1173 
proclaimed himself king : not being a descendant 
of Mahomed, he could not be called kaliffe. Sa- 
ladin turned his arms against the Christians, and 
performed prodigies of valour, not only in defence 
of the cities already in possession of the Chris- 
tians, but against those possessed by the Turks 
also, until he had reduced nearly the whole of 
Palestine under his control. All Europe now 
roused themselves, in order to rescue a country so 
dear to every Christian from the hands of infi- 
delity. For three years, the Crusaders were baffled 



70 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

in all their attempts ; but the Crusade in which 
Richard Coeur de Leon of England joined Philip 
of France was destined to be more successful. 
Richard was the most intrepid warrior Saladin had 
yet encountered, and his success proportionate: 
the whole sea coast from Jaffa to Tyre was sur- 
rendered to the Christians, and the Pilgrims of 
Europe travelling to Jerusalem were to be pro- 
tected by Saladin himself. After these and other 
concessions, a truce for three years three months 
three days and three hours, was concluded, and the 
remainder of the armies returned home. From 
this period the history of Egypt is totally without 
interest until 1250, when the Mamelukes, a band 
of Circassian slaves, who had been trained to war, 
drove the Sultan ab Saleh from the throne, and 
usurped the government, which they held until 
1517. Selim, the Turkish sultan, attacked them, 
and overthrew their government, establishing a 
kind of republic, in which the Mamelukes had 
considerable power for nearly 300 years. Egypt 
was the scene of violent contention; sometimes 
under a sort of independent government, but more 
frequently under various tribes of Turks, and 
sometimes under that of the Porte. In this state 
it was when, in 1798, the French under Bona- 
parte landed at Morabou with 5000 troops, marched 
to Alexandria, put to flight its Arab and Mame- 
luke defenders, and made himself master of the 
city. He then called together the Turkish chiefs, 
and assured them his only desire was to rescue 
the country from oppression, professing at the 



AFRICA. 71 

same time the highest respect for the Moham- 
medan religion ; but while thus professing friend- 
ship he rapidly made himself master of one town 
after another, until the whole of Lower Egypt 
was under his command, from which they were 
only driven by several years of severe contest on 
the part of the British, in which those English 
heroes Nelson and Sir Sydney Smith were con- 
spicuous and brilliant actors. During this ex- 
traordinary conflict, some acts of Bonaparte were 
marked with such savage cruelty and reckless 
breaches of truth and honour, as must ever stain 
his name and character with blood. But the in- 
ternal state of Egypt has undergone an important 
revolution since these transactions, a revolution 
brought about by the extraordinary talents and 
energies of Mahomed Ali. Mahomed Ali Pasha 
was born in Cavallo, an ancient town in Mace- 
donia : his father was at the head of the police, 
and Mahomed engaged in the tobacco trade ; but 
during the French invasion he became an officer 
in the Turkish forces, and under the auspices of 
the English soon became distinguished by a daunt- 
less bravery, that placed him at the head of every 
expedition. In the first place, his plans seem to 
have had no other end than the desire of command 
in his corps ; but the ease with which he attained 
one step after the other, awakened ambition, and 
led to power, aided by the stepping-stones of force 
and fraud. Mahomed had not enjoyed the ad- 
vantages of education : even reading and writing 
were attainments of later life, and seldom brought 



72 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

into use. Endowed with a keen sense of what was 
best and most expedient, he at all times entered 
with avidity into every extensive plan, and having 
no scruples of conscience to withhold him, brought 
them to a successful termination. With Mahomed 
a new epoch dawned upon the East ; literature and 
science promised to travel hand in hand with Is- 
lamism ; and though the means used may not 
always have been defensible, yet the result has 
raised a lasting monument to the memory of its 
instruments. 



ABYSSINIA. 

This country corresponds to the southern part 
of ancient Ethiopia. The natives disdain the name 
of Abyssinia, which comes from the Arabic 
Habesh, a mixed people. They call themselves 
Agazians, and their country Agazi, or Ghez. 
Their history mounts to a period about 1000 years 
B. c, from Arwo, the Serpent King. They reckon 
five dynasties : but their history is completely 
mingled with fable, and nothing known on which 
reliance can be placed. That the Christian reli- 
gion was introduced into Ethiopia at a very early 
period, is proved by the account given of the 
Eunuch in Acts, viii. 26. Yet it does not appear 
to have flourished, but to have been opposed by 
the Jews and the Kerishites until about 530, 
when several missionaries proceeded to Abyssinia, 
and for a time fanned the expiring embers of 



AFRICA. 73 

Christianity into a flame, which was however af- 
terwards crushed by hordes of Musselmen ; so that 
their mountains alone enabled the poor Abyssi- 
nians to maintain their natural character or their 
religion. They were an unsettled people, fre- 
quently engaged in wars, and apparently without 
trade or commerce, until the 14th century, when 
some Abyssinian priests, who visited Europe, gave 
such a favourable account of their country, that 
the Portuguese were induced to visit various parts 
of the African coast, in the course of which the 
Cape of Good Hope was discovered, and the Por- 
tuguese became allies of the Abyssinians, and 
assisted them in repelling the attacks of a Ma- 
hommedan chief who reigned in the kingdom of 
Arras, eastward of Choa. Many Catholic Mis- 
sionaries gained access to this country during its 
connection with Portugal ; but about the end of 
the 16th century we find the Emperor Socinius 
abjuring the Christian faith, and expelling all 
Christian agents, priests, missionaries, &c, from 
the country, which from that time was less ac- 
cessible to the Europeans. In 1796 Bruce visited 
Abyssinia. Its next European visitor was Salt, in 
1805, and again in 1809 ; and it is to these tra- 
vellers alone that we are indebted for our present 
imperfect acquaintance with Abyssinia. 

BARBARY. 

Barbary is one of the regions of Africa earliest 
known in history. The Phoenicians appear to 

E 



74 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

have navigated its coast above 1000 years before 
Christ. In 886 B. c. a colony of this people, 
under Dido, founded the far-famed city of Car- 
thage. The Romans, after the destruction of that 
city, disputed the possession of the country with 
the Moors, I^umidians, Africans, and Lybians. 
Having at last made themselves masters of it, they 
divided it into five provinces — Pentapolis, Cyre- 
naica, Africa Propria, Numidia, and Mauri- 
tania. In the time of Constantine a part of the 
country had become a province of Egypt ; another 
part was a province of Spain ; and the country 
between was known as Africa. In the 4th cen- 
tury the Yandals made themselves masters of the 
Roman possessions in that part of the globe, and 
marked their progress by blood and devastation. 
In the early part of the 5th century Belisarius, on 
the part of Greece, recovered Barbary, and made 
it a part of the Greek empire ; but in 697 it was 
subdued by the Mahommedan Arabs. The Sara- 
cens now governed northern Africa, and under 
them the arts and sciences flourished, and every 
thing wore a pleasing aspect. From thence the 
Saracens or Moors passed over into Spain, and 
succeeded in planting their standard in every 
valuable province. They, however, gradually de- 
clined, and were obliged to seek the aid of the 
Turks ; and these people laid the foundation of 
those piratical states in Barbary which so long 
annoyed and robbed every Christian power in Eu- 
rope. To such a height had their piratical boldness 
gained, at one period, that Moorish cruisers actually 



AFEICA. 75 

lay under Lundy Island, in the Bristol Channel, to 
rob traders going from Ireland to the fairs at 
Bristol. Soon after the subjection of Barbary to 
the Caliphs it was divided into a number of petty 
sovereignties, which, though frequently changing, 
still continue. 



MOROCCO. 

Morocco was the Mauritania of the Ancients, 
and long under the dominion of the Romans. 
After the destruction of the Roman empire it fell 
to the Goths, from the Goths to the Yandals, 
from the Yandals to the Greeks, from the Greeks 
to the Saracens. After this they were divided 
and subjugated by the Fatamites, the Zuheirites, 
and the Maravedi, whose ecclesiastical and poli- 
tical sway extended from Algiers to Timbuctoo and 
Soudan, for eighty years. They were, in the 11th 
century, overpowered by the Almohades, whose 
princes assumed the titles of Caliphs. After 
something like a century, intestine discord laid 
them open to the incursions of other tribes ; until, 
about the middle of the twelfth century, a de- 
scendant of Mahomet seized the sceptre which he 
bequeathed to his own family, who, notwithstand- 
ing frequent revolutions, have preserved the sove- 
reignty of Morocco until the present day. Mulay 
Abderrahman ascended the throne in 1822. The 
soil of Morocco is fertile, rich, and loamy. It is 
never manured, except by the cattle and the burn- 
E 2 



76 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

ing of stubble ; yet they frequently gather sixty 
fold in their crops. But the Moors cultivate no 
more than they require, and that with as little 
trouble as possible ; yet their country abounds 
in fruits of every kind; oranges, lemons, and 
grapes grow in their fields and hedges. Oaks, 
olives, and various kinds of timber grow remark- 
ably large and fine. Iron mines have been wrought, 
and the Atlas mountains contain valuable metals. 
To an industrious enterprising people, such a soil 
and such resources would be invaluable ; but the 
Moors are intrinsically idle, and possess neither 
ingenuity, spirit, nor enterprise, to improve the 
native riches of their productive country. 



ALGIERS. 

This countiy was, in the earliest period of 
authentic history, divided between two nations* 
the Massyli, on the side of Africa Proper, who 
were the subjects of Massinissa, and the Mas- 
sassyli, towards Mauritania, who were under the 
dominion of Syphax. On the defeat of Juba by 
Caesar, this country became a Roman province. In 
the sixteenth century the Spaniards invaded Al- 
giers, when the Algerines called to their aid the 
celebrated corsair Arnek Barbarossa, who, by va- 
rious acts of cruelty, injustice, and oppression, 
made himself master of the country, and with his 
successors gave it the bad eminence of a piratical 
state, which it held until chastised t by the British 



AFRICA. 77 

fleet a few years since. For several centuries the 
Algerine corsa ; rs, or pirates, were the terror of 
Europe a_ d Asia, scourirg the Mediterranean from 
coast to coast, and committing all kinds of depre- 
dations and cruelties. James II., William III., 
and George II., endeavoured to bring them to 
reasonable terms of treaty ; but the outrageous 
conduct of the Barbary pirates broke all treaties, 
and called forth the indignation of the principal 
maritime powers in Europe. In 1775 the Spa- 
niards made an attempt at reducing them, but failed 
for want of cordiality among the commanders. In 
1783 another effort was made, but proved equally 
fruitless. In 1816 a British fleet was sent out 
under Lord Exmouth. The Algerine fleet was re- 
duced to ashes, the batteries silenced, and one 
half of the town destroyed, and no course left to 
the Bey but to cast himself on the mercy of the 
British Admiral. The terms imposed were severe, 
but just ; and Lord Exmouth had the satisfaction 
of giving liberty to 1211 slaves, among whom 
there was not one Briton. No sooner, however, 
had the Algerines recovered a little from this se- 
vere infliction than they resumed their piracies, 
and committed many outrages upon French and 
Austrian vessels. In 1830 an expedition was 
fitted out by France, and succeeded in reducing 
Algiers, which now belongs to that country, to 
whom, as lying opposite to Marseilles and TouIod, 
it must be one of the most desirable countries in 
the world. We n?ay now hope that the present 
miserable race of barbarians who occupy Mau- 
E 3 



78 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

ritania will become amalgamated with Christian 
nations, and thus extend knowledge and civilis- 
ation together with the sweet and peaceable doc* 
trines of Christianity, that the religion of the 
cross may flourish over one of the fairest and 
most interesting tracts of this earth's surface. 



EUROPE. 79 



A GENERAL SURVEY 



THE HISTORY OF EUROPE, 



Europe is the smallest of the general divisions 
of the globe. It is said to have been peopled by 
Japhet, a son of Noah ; but of its early history 
very little is known. The first accounts we have 
are those of Greece about the 19th century; but 
these are so mixed with fable that very little can 
be learnt from them, until about the middle of the 
24th century, when Athens was founded by 
Cecrops, and soon after Lacedaemon by Lelex. 
Thebes and Corinth followed ; and in the early 
part of the 26th century we find Italy becoming 
a kingdom, but so mingled with fabulous history 
that we cannot consider any of the facts really 
historical until the founding of Rome in 3251 ; 
and even in this, something of fable mixes. As the 
Romans became a people and nation fable dis- 
appears, and their restless ambition soon brings 
e 4 



80 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

us acquainted with the nations of the North, which 
have since supplied such ample subject for the 
page of history, and among whom at this day are 
the greatest kingdoms of the known world. 



RUSSIA. 

Russia, as the largest of the northern nations, 
demands our first attention. This monarchy is 
supposed to have been founded by Ruric, who 
built the city of Ludaga in a.d. 862, and Chris- 
tianity to have been introduced about 988. The 
cities of Wladimir and Warsaw were built about 
1156 by Juric, or George I.; but the history of 
Russia is nothing but a detail of uninteresting 
wars with their neighbours the Tartars and other 
savage tribes, until about the year 1540, when 
John Basilowitz reconquered it from the Tartars, 
to whom it had been many years subject, and re- 
stored its independence. 

About the middle of the 16th century the 
Russians discovered and conquered Siberia, under 
their king Feodor, who dying in 1660, the royal 
line became extinguished, and the country was 
for twenty years torn and convulsed by wars; 
when Michael, a descendant from the family of 
Romanof was elected Czar, with hereditary 
powers. This prince had much to contend with ; 
but he put down or destroyed all opposers. About 
1653 a war with the Turks commenced, which was 
continued under Alexis till 1681, who established 



EUROPE. SI 

the first posts in Russia in his reign. Iron and 
copper mines were first wrought ; silk and linen 
manufactures commenced ; internal navigation im- 
proved; and the first vessels sent to the north 
of Asia. His son Feodor humbled the nobility, 
and annihilated their pretensions, by artfully burn- 
ing their pedigrees and archives. Peter, his step- 
brother and successor, was a man admirably cal- 
culated by nature for making progress with a 
nation yet in barbarism. What Philip had been 
to Macedonia, Peter became to Russia. His first 
aim, on coming to the crown, was the forming an 
army modelled on European tactics. To accomplish 
this he spared neither time nor trouble. Under his 
father Alexis he had helped to build and navigate 
a ship ; he now studied ship-building as an art, 
established dockyards on the Don, and in 1696 
equipped twenty-three galleys, besides other ves- 
sels, with which he defeated the Turkish fleet. 
After this he travelled through Europe in search 
of information, worked as a common ship-builder 
at Amsterdam, and for three years in the English 
dockyard. Nothing was too low, nothing too high 
for the observation and aim of Peter. He wielded 
equally well the hatchet and the lance, the pen 
and the sword. While in England Peter won 
the esteem of all ranks of people, and is said to 
have observed, that if he had not been Czar of 
Russia he would have wished to be an English 
admiral. He returned to Russia, carrying with 
him upwards of 500 English engineers, artists, and 
mechanics, all of whom he immediately employed 
E 5 



82 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

in the most advantageous manner. Peter now 
devoted himself to the finances of the state, and 
the introduction of civilisation and modern Eu- 
ropean dress, manners, and customs, among his 
people. In 1700 he declared war against Sweden, 
and found no mean enemy in young Charles XII., 
who, however, fell at the siege of Pultowa in 
1709, which again restored peace for that time; 
but the whole reign of Peter was a scene of war 
and contest with Sweden, which however ended, 
in 1721, greatly to the glory, honour, and interest 
of Russia. 

Peter died on the 8th of February, 1725, and 
was succeeded by his wise adviser and excellent 
wife Catherine, who survived him but two years, 
and was succeeded by the Empress Anne, widow 
of the Duke of Courland, and daughter of Peter 
the Great. After her the Empress Elizabeth, a 
younger sister, a woman of bold and masculine 
mind, filled the throne. In July, 1762> Cathe- 
rine II. widow of Peter III., a princess of Anhault 
Yerbst, ascended the throne. Catherine was a 
woman of bold licentious manners, faulty as a pri- 
vate character, but great as an Empress. Her reign 
may be regarded as the most glorious and pros- 
perous in the Russian annals. Among her earliest 
acts was a confirmation of the peace made by 
Peter III. with Russia. Indeed the whole reign 
of this Empress was marked by the encourage- 
ment given to civilisation, sciences, arts, naviga- 
tion, and military education. She founded new 
towns, concluded commercial treaties, divided her 



EUROPE. 83 

empire into governments, revised and augmented 
the laws, and even formed a code of her own; 
lowered the taxes, relieved the poor from many 
cruel oppressions of the nobility, and bestowed 
many favours and privileges on the non-Catholics 
under her protection. She was successful in her 
wars with Turkey, Prussia, and Austria ; and, fear- 
ful of the English dominion on the seas, she formed 
what was called the northern neutrality, in 1780, 
during the North American war, in which she was 
joined by several northern countries and states. 
The Ottoman Porte, however, was increasingly 
embittered towards Catherine by all these acts. 
The Crimea was a matter of constant dispute and 
contention. Catherine steadfastly refused all Prus- 
sian and English interference, and finally con- 
cluded a treaty, and made peace with the Porte 
herself, in December 1790, by which Russia ob- 
tained Oxzakof and the lands between the Bog 
and the Dniester. On the conclusion of the 
Turkish war Catherine again turned her eyes on 
Poland, and in 1793 a territory of 86,800 square 
miles was added to the Russian empire, and such 
grievous restrictions imposed on the remaining 
part of Poland as caused a formidable rebellion at 
Warsaw, headed by Kosciusko ; but it was useless. 
A third partition took place in 1795 ; and Russia 
extended her already gigantic dominions, which 
now reached from the shores of the Baltic, in one 
line, to the western end of North America and 
the Japan Islands. 

e 6 



M UNIVERSAL HISTOEY. 

The administration of Catherine was successful 
in the extreme. She conducted the affairs of a 
vast but semi-barbarous empire through a very 
critical period of European history, and left it to 
her successor with an annual revenue doubled in 
its amount, an aggrandisement o i territory amount- 
ing to 240,000 square miles, and an immense army 
and navy. She died in November 1796, and was 
succeeded by her son Paul I. 

The annals of Eastern despotism do not exhibit 
the history of a more capricious, tyrannous, or 
detestable monarch than Paul of Russia. His 
long-suppressed hatred of his mother burst forth 
after her death, and revenged itself in every act 
of cruelty and rebellion towards those persons or 
institutions she had favoured. The chief of the 
secret pc-lice soon became, next to the terrible 
Autocrat, the first person in the realm ; and their 
united cruelties, follies, and madness, exceed the 
powers of the pen to describe, or imagination to 
conceive. In all his transactions with foreign 
powers, the part he took in the wars then extend- 
ing through all Europe, and the harshness with 
which he treated his own nobles, was displayed the 
same insane and cruel self-will and thirst for 
power. Under such a government, conspiracies 
would naturally be formed against the power and 
even the life of the monarch. Under one of 
these, at the head of which were three of the 
Subof family and three of his own generals, Paul 
was assassinated in his own bed-room, hated by 
all, regretted by none, on the 23d of March, 1801, 



EUROPE. 8 a 

and was succeeded by his eldest son, Alexander I., 
a man of very different and superior character, 
who did much to restore the laws and regulations 
of his grandmother Catherine. 

The senate and cabinet were recognised, op- 
pression ceased to be felt, intercourse with foreign 
countries was renewed, and peace and prosperity 
reigned around. Alexander, however, soon found 
himself engaged in harassing and expensive wars, 
sometimes in conjunction with, sometimes in op- 
position to, Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then 
pursuing his meteor-like course. The political 
horizon frequently changed its aspect, and Alex- 
ander his views ; yet, on the whole, he added to 
the dignity, wealth, and already enormous extent 
of his empire. The unfortunate expedition of 
Bonaparte to Russia in 1812 hastened the crisis 
of political affairs. In July, 1815, Alexander 
entered Paris for the second time ; and, after the 
signing of a general peace, visited England, in 
company with the King of Prussia and others. 
In 1820 he banished the Jesuits from Russia and 
Poland, as well as the large order of Freemasons. 
Alexander died suddenly at Taganrok, on the 1st 
of December, 1825, not without strong supposi- 
tions of having been poisoned. 

Constantine, the next brother, and heir to the 
throne, having resigned his claim from a conscious 
unfitness, his younger brother, the Grand Duke 
Nicholas, ascended the throne in July, 1817. He 
married the Grand Duchess Alexandrina of Prus- 
sia, a lady of a strong mind, sound judgment, 



86 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

and pure morals, by whom he has several chil- 
dren, and who, it is said, possesses the strongest 
influence over him, which is ever exerted for his 
welfare and the general good. Hitherto the reign 
of Nicholas has been peaceful and prosperous : he 
stands well in general esteem, though it is said 
cruelty towards Poland darkly shades his cha- 
racter. 



DENMARK. 

The three northern kingdoms, Denmark, 
Sweden, and Norway, were anciently known 
under the common appellation of Scandinavia ; 
but about the time that the power of Rome began 
to decline, they became known by their depreda- 
tions as Northmen, or Normans. They esta- 
blished themselves, under Rollo their leader, on 
the coast of Normandy, founded two kingdoms in 
England, peopled the Feroe Islands, the Orkneys, 
the Shetlands, Iceland, and part of Ireland ; and 
finally reached Spain, Italy, and Sicily. Every- 
where these warriors spread the glory of their 
name ; but they sadly tarnished its brightness by 
their fierceness, and the cruelty of their princes. 
The German kings of the Carlovingian race, 
hoping to check the progress of these marauders, 
interfered in their policy, which only served to 
draw them more closely together, under the name 
of Norwegians and Danes. Gorm subjugated 
Jutland in 920, and united all the small Danish 



EUKOPE. 87 

states under his own sceptre, thus forming the 
kingdom of Denmark. 

About this time the Christian religion was in- 
troduced by a missionary into Denmark, but 
struggled long with the worship of Odin. In 
1016 5 Canute the Illustrious, great grandson of 
Gorm, conquered the whole of Norway, com- 
pleted the conquest of England, and subdued a 
great part of Scotland. Under him Denmark 
attained its highest pitch of glory : religion began 
to gain an ascendency over the horrid rites of 
Odin, and the blessings of social life to be univer- 
sally acknowledged. Canute died in 1036, leav- 
ing a mighty kingdom to weak successors. In 
1042 England shook off its allegiance, and Nor- 
way followed the example. 

In 1047, Magnus established a new dynasty, 
which deprived the government of all power, 
drained the resources of the country, and reduced 
the peasants to a state of bondage ; ruined agricul- 
ture, and threw commerce into the hands of the 
German Hanseatic towns. Valdemar the Great was 
the only vigorous ruler of this dynasty ; but he had 
too much to contend with, and in 1241 divided 
his weakened kingdom among his sons. This 
only produced new internal divisions and disputes 
with the powerful Hanseatic towns, all tending to 
weaken the state. 

After the death of Olav IV., Margaret, his 
aunt, daughter of Valdemar III., took the reins of 
government. This princess, so justly famed in 
Northern history, succeeded in uniting the crowns 



88 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, in 1388j 
which in 1397 was solemnly ratified by the union 
of Colmar. This union was, however, unfortunate 
in its issue. New disturbances and troubles broke 
out in Sweden and the German provinces, which 
were found difficult to subdue. 

In 1448, Christian L, of Oldenberg, founder 
of the present family, was elected by the Danes, 
and obliged to conclude a treaty with the States, 
in which he acknowledged Denmark an elective 
kingdom, but united Norway, Sleswick, and 
Holstein with the crown of Denmark. 

He was succeeded by his son John, in whose 
reign the union of Colmar was dissolved, 1523, 
and his crown wrested from him by the Danish 
and Norwegian nobility, who placed his brother 
Frederic on the throne. Frederic, however, found 
a bed of thorns and a drink of bitter water among 
the haughty aristocracy, while the oppressed and 
injured peasantry were often in open rebellion. 

After his death, Christian III. mounted the 
throne in 1534. He divided Sleswick and Hols- 
tein with his brothers John and Adolph ; the latter 
of whom became the founder of the house of 
Holstein- Got torp ; but this partition proved a 
fertile source of family disputes. 

The reigns of Frederic II. and Christian IV. 
were full of wars with Sweden and other powers, 
to the great injury of Denmark. 

In 1648 Christian was succeeded by his son, 
Frederic III., a man of considerable courage and 
ability. Frederic soon found himself engaged in 



EUKOPE, 89 

a war with Charles Gustavus of Sweden, who*- 
aided by the Dutch, would probably have made 
himself master of Denmark, had not Cromwell, 
the English Protector, interposed in favour of 
Frederic. After several treaties, broken by either 
the Dutch or the Danes, England eventually suc- 
ceeded in effecting a peace between them, by 
yielding considerable territory to the Dutch and 
Swedes. 

Until 1660 the monarchy was elective, but the 
choice was confined to the reigning family. The 
power of the king was extremely limited, while 
that of the nobles was exorbitant. The commons 
had hitherto borne the burden of the government ; 
but the kingdom was now exhausted by the war 
which had just terminated. An assembly of the 
States was therefore called, and, after much con- 
tention and difficulty, the crown was declared 
hereditary in the female as well as male line ; 
and in 1665 the king, by virtue of the powers 
conferred on him, promulgated the lex regia, a 
royal line, by which the kings of Denmark were 
declared absolute, and this has ever since been the 
fundamental law of Denmark. Under Frederic IY. 
commerce began to revive ; and the death of 
Charles XII., in 1718, put an end to the strug- 
gles with Sweden, after which a peace of nearly 
one hundred years ensued. 

Frederic Y. began to reign in 1746, and was 
sorely pressed upon by the formidable Peter of 
Russia. He was, however, a man of great courage 
and judgment, and on Catherine's accession he 



90 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

entered into negociations and arrangements highly 
advantageous to Denmark,* by which the ground 
of dispute between the different lines of Holstein 
and the kings of Denmark were effectually re- 
moved. 

Christian VII. ascended the throne in 1766, 
and lived until 1808 ; but the greater part of that 
time he was deranged, and for the last twenty- 
four years his son Frederic had governed. The 
reign of Christian was during an important period 
of European history. The early part of his reign 
was disturbed by Struenzee, a man of great talents 
and restless overbearing disposition, who was 
eventually brought to the scaffold in 1792. Den- 
mark obtained for herself the honour of being the 
first European power that proscribed and forbid 
the horrible traffic in slaves, which had been car- 
ried on to a great extent. 

During the French revolution Denmark main- 
tained a strict neutrality, until about 1800, when, 
finding herself hemmed in by the other powers, 
she joined the northern armed neutrality. On the 
death of Paul, however, which changed the po- 
litics of Russia, both Denmark and Russia en- 
tered into a treaty with England, which treaty 
was soon broken, and Denmark was obliged to re- 
sign all her fleet into the hands of the English, 
until a general peace should be concluded. In 
1807 Denmark entered into a treaty with France, 
and declared war against England and Sweden? 
by which, however, she gained nothing but loss 
and trouble ; for Bernadotte, finding himself be- 



EUROPE. 91 

tween the great allied powers of Russia and Eng- 
land, entered into treaties with both, and after the 
battle of Leipzig compelled the Danes to enter 
into a peace with Sweden and Great Britain. 
At the general peace of 1815 Denmark obtained 
Lauenburg and a sum of money from Prussia, in 
exchange for Pomerania and Rugens ; and the king 
entered into the German confederation, in which 
he holds three votes in the duchies of Holstein 
and Lauenburg. Since that time to 1848 Den- 
mark had enjoyed a profound peace, and in some 
degree recovered her commercial prosperity. But 
the revolutionary spirit, which so suddenly spread 
itself over great part of Europe, has broken out in 
Denmark, and will probably produce important 
changes ; for a bad government and limited re- 
sources are fatal enemies to confidence or improve- 
ment, and require great prudence and energy to 
restore peace to a dissatisfied excited people. 



SWEDEN. 

The aboriginal inhabitants of Sweden were of 
Finnic and Lapponian extraction. They appear to 
have retreated to the higher latitudes before the 
advancing population of the German nations. 
They were governed by chiefs sprung from the 
fabulous family of Odin. From the 5th to the 10th 
century we find them assuming the name and go- 
verning as kings of Upsala. In 994, Olof em- 



92 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

braced Christian! !y, and formed a regular govern- 
ment. In 1250, the powers 1 family of Folkungen 
mounted the throne, and the succession was fixed 
in their family ; but, tired of their oppressors, the 
Swedes revolted, and in 1363 gave the crown to 
Albert of Mecklenburg. He, however, soon fell in 
a battle against the Danes ; when Margaret, queen 
of Denmark and Norway, umted Sweden to them, 
which was confirmed, in 1397, by the treaty of 
Colmar. Troubles, rebellions, and various changes 
were produced by this union, until, in 1520, Chris- 
tian II. of Denmark, having invaded Sweden, was 
recognised as king by the Swedish States, but 
soon became obnoxious to his subjects by his 
cruelty and treachery. 

Among the hostages who had been treacherously 
carried prisoners to Denmark was Gustavus Yasa, 
one of those superior daring and undaunted spirits, 
which, when united with high intellect, seem formed 
by nature for grand and mighty exploits — to com- 
mand the whirlwind and direct the storm. Gus- 
tavus placed himself at the head of his discon- 
tented countrymen, and, having driven the Danes 
out of Sweden, was, in 1523, proclaimed their 
king, and the succession secured to his family. 
Under Gustavus Yasa the Eeformation was intro- 
duced and encouraged ; the States of the Church 
added to those of the Crown ; commerce and navi- 
gation were promoted by alliances with England 
and Holland; many independent conquests and 
additions were made to the kingdom ; and pros- 
perity and improvement took the places of anarchy 



EUROPE, 93 

and confusion. After his death several members 
of his family succeeded with various success ; but 
none of them very eminent, until Gustavus Adol- 
phus ascended the throne in 16 11, in the eighteenth 
year of his age. Under his management the king- 
dom enjoyed a degree of solidity hitherto unknown; 
although the progress of population and civilis- 
ation was checked by his frequent wars with 
Russia, Denmark, and Poland. In 1617 he con- 
cluded a peace with Russia, by which he gained 
Jugermanland ; and in 1629 an armistice with 
Poland, by which he gained Livonia : the great 
object of his wishes was now within his power. 

In. June 1630, Gustavus landed in Pomerania 
with 30,000 men, and, being joined by several 
German Protestant Princes, gained the victory of 
Breckenfeld over the imperious general Tilly. 
From this time the influence of Sweden over the 
political destinies of the north-west of Europe was 
immense. Gustavus was every where hailed by 
the Protestants as their Deliverer. His glory and 
his schemes were, however, cut short at the battle 
of Lutzen, where, in all probability, he fell by the 
hand of a traitor in the hour of victory. Gus- 
tavus was succeeded by his infant daughter Chris- 
tina, during whose minority the celebrated chan- 
cellor, Oxen sterna, held the reins of government, 
and conducted the wars of Germany ; in which the 
heroes, Bernard of Wiemar, Bannin, Wrangele, 
Torstensen, and Koningsmark exalted the Swedish 
name, and ended the contest gloriously for Sweden, 
having added very largely to her territory and her 



94 UNIVERSAL, HISTORY. 

possessions, her honour and her reputation. The 
distinguishing features in the character of Chris- 
tina were eccentricity and inconstancy. She fa- 
voured learning and science, and affected a love of 
philosophic ease. After renouncing that religion 
for which her ancestors had suffered the loss of so 
much blood and treasure, and for which her noble 
father had sacrificed his life, she abdicated her 
throne in 1654, and retired to a convent in Rome, 
where she ended her inglorious days. 

Christina was succeeded by her cousin, Charles 
Gustavus, Prince Palatine of Zwiebriicken, who, 
after a turbulent and active reign of six years, 
restored peace to the North by his sudden death, 
and was succeeded by his son Charles, then a 
minor. Nothing particular occurred in his reign, 
which as usual was disturbed by war, until 1680, 
when Charles married Eleanor of Denmark, and 
passed the remainder of his reign in tranquillity. 
He died in April 1697, and was succeeded by his 
son, the famous Charles XII., then only fifteen 
years of age. 



CHARLES XII. 

Sweden was at the height of her glory when 
Charles came to the crown. He was absolute 
master of Sweden, Finland, Carelin, Ingerman- 
land, Livonia, the Duchies of Bremen and Verden, 
the Isle of Rugen, and great part of Pomerania. 
His subjects were poor but loyal, brave and hardy: 



EUKOPE. 95 

his finances in excellent condition, and his admi- 
nistration in the hands of able and excellent mi- 
nisters. But Charles, though a warrior, was no 
statesman ; and his frantic exploits bear more the 
character of romance than of history. His reign 
of twenty-one years is but a succession of ill- 
directed wild warfare, tending little to the true 
glory of Sweden, and still less to the welfare of 
the Northern nations. 

After the siege of Pultowa Charles fled to 
Bendar, where he placed himself under the pro- 
tection of Sultan Achmet III. After a residence 
of five years he suddenly appeared at Stralsund, 
demanding the restoration of Strettin, which 
William Frederic of Prussia had taken during his 
absence. Failing in this, and finding England op- 
posed to him, Charles tried to enter into a nego- 
ciation with the Czar of Russia, hoping to indem- 
nify himself by the conquest of Norway; but, 
while engaged in the siege of Fredericstadt, he 
was shot on the 13th of November, 1718. Upon 
the death of her brother, Ulrica Eleonora, his 
youngest sister, was elected queen, but was fated 
to find a throne thickly planted with thorns. 
Wars, disturbances, and revolts of every kind 
broke out around her. No sooner was one demand 
granted or one concession made, than another was 
demanded with greater impetuosity. Under the 
prevalence of the aristocracy two parties, distin- 
guished as "Hats" and "Bonnets," distracted the 
council. The preponderance of the " Hats " brought 
on a war with Russia, in the midst of which 



96 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Eleanor died, and was succeeded by her nephew, 
Charles Peter of Holstein, who, with his suc- 
cessor Adolphus Frederic, held the government 
during a few years of turbulence and disorders. 
Gustavus III., son of Adolphus Frederic, as- 
cended the throne in February 1771, and resolved 
by a bold stroke to put an end to the intestine 
divisions which had so long torn the country. He 
declared the constitution of 1680 to be again the 
law of the kingdom, and, relinquishing his unli- 
mited authority, shared it with the four classes 
comprising the states of nobility, clergy, citizens, 
and peasantry. The energies of the kingdom now 
gained strength : commerce and industry revived, 
and every thing bore the semblance of prosperity. 
He was, however, soon embroiled in a war by 
their old enemy Russia, in which Grustavus dis- 
played great courage and much political acumen 
and judgment. After obtaining many decided 
advantages for Sweden, Gustavus was assassinated 
at a masquerade by Ankerstrom, a deed doubtless 
prompted by the long hatred of the aristocracy. 
Gustavus was succeeded by his son, who, being a 
minor, his uncle, Duke Charles of Sudermania, 
was made regent. Charles acted with prudence 
and circumspection, and maintained the inde- 
pendence of the country against the threats of 
Russia, who insisted on forming the league against 
France. Gustavus took upon himself the sove- 
reignty in 1800, and after the death of Paui 
entered into a treaty of commerce with Russia and 
England, and no longer able to conceal his dislike 



EUROPE. 97 

of Napoleon, entered into a league with England 
against France in 1805. 

Gustavus, however, was versatile, selfish, and 
deceitful ; a violator of treaties, and a breaker of 
pledges ; defending both England and Russia as 
it suited his purposes. A disadvantageous war 
with Norway exhausted its finances ; and his bad 
conduct towards his own guards brought on his 
dethronement, in April 1809, when his posterity 
were for ever excluded from the Swedish throne, 
and the Duke of Suclermania mounted it, under 
the title of Charles XIII. ; but as he was aged, 
and without an heir, Augustus of Sliswick was 
named by the States as his successor. 

In January, 1810, Sweden joined the conti- 
nental system against England; and in August 
of the same year Buonaparte forced them to elect 
his general, Bernadotte, Prince of Porto Corvo, 
heir to the throne, under the name of Charles 
John, and soon acquired a powerful influence in 
the direction of the government. By the peace 
of 1814 Sweden obtained Norway, and resigned 
Swedish Pomerania to Denmark. The Nor- 
wegians, indeed, made an attempt, under Chris- 
tian Frederic of Holstein Sliswick, to form an 
independent kingdom, but only drew contempt on 
themselves. Charles XIII. died in February, 
1818, and Charles John XIV. ascended the 
Swedish throne, though opposed by the Bourbon 
party. In 1824 Charles named his son, the Prince 
Oscar, viceroy of Norway; and in 1827, the 
Crown Princess, daughter of Prince Eugene, 

F 



98 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

former viceroy of Italy, gave birth to a son, who 
had received the name and title of Francis Gus- 
tavus Oscar, Duke of Upland. Charles John 
died, after a useful and peaceable reign, univer- 
sally respected, and was succeeded by his son 
Oscar. 



NORWAY. 

As early as the year 870 A. d., we find a Nor- 
wegian king or chief, Harold Haffager, the fair- 
haired, spreading terror and desolation throughout 
the Hebrides. This chief founded that authority 
which the kings of Norway and Denmark so long 
held over the Orkneys. Olaf I. having been con- 
verted to Christianity in England, compelled his 
subjects to embrace that faith, which was sup- 
ported by his successors. Norway appears to 
have been frequently subdued by Denmark, and 
then again to be governed by its own kings, until 
the latter part of the 13th century, when Mar- 
garet (daughter of Valdemar III.), Queen of 
Denmark, succeeded her son as Queen of Norway. 
From that time till 1814 the two kingdoms con- 
tinued one government. At that time the King 
of Denmark, in his character of King of Norway, 
ceded the kingdom to his Majesty of Sweden, to 
be thenceforth united to that kingdom. 

Norway is a cold, sterile, rocky country ; but 
the natives are cheerful, happy, industrious, and 
good-looking. They are a moral, religious people. 



EUROPE. 99 

The king is the head of the Church. Norway 
has its own language, but cannot be said to pos- 
sess any national literature. Its eminent men 
have written in Danish ; but the Norwegians are 
not destitute of taste. Mathematics, natural his- 
tory, and history are cultivated. Newspapers 
were established in 1803 : the periodicals of Ger- 
many are likewise read ; and they have a Royal 
Society of Science at Drontheim. 



GERMANY. 

Under the name of Germania, the Romans 
comprehended not only the wild country, covered 
with enormous forests, lakes, and morasses, which 
was bounded by the Danube, the Rhine, the Ger- 
man Ocean, and the Vistula, but also Denmark, 
Norway, Sweden, Finland, Livonia, and Poland. 
All these countries, forming one third of Europe, 
were inhabited by tribes whose features, manners, 
and language bespoke a common origin, and whom 
they believed to be an indigenous race, the imme- 
diate offspring of the soil, without adventitious 
mixture from other countries. 

Whether the Scandinavian mythology was an- 
ciently that of the German is an undecided ques- 
tion : but we find in both the same gods : in both, 
Odin or Woden is the oldest : Friga, his wife, 
Thor, the god of Thunder, and many others, are 
objects of equal worship in both. The Romans 
first became acquainted with the Germans about 
F 2 



100 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

the year 640 of Rome, 111 before Christ, when a 
wild tribe, calling themselves Cimbri, appeared 
on the Alps, and defeated the Consul Papirins 
Carbo. 

The Teutones were the next, who, crossing the 
Western, and the Cimbri and Ambrones the 
Northern Alps, were met by Marius, who de- 
feated the Teutones near the place now called 
Aix, in Provence. 

When Caesar had subdued the Gauls, and car- 
ried his victorious arms to the Rhine, he found a 
nation called Germans, whom Caesar obliged to re- 
treat beyond the Rhine. The civil wars of Rome 
afterwards turned the attention of its generals 
from Germany ; and the tribes, during the inter- 
val, made various inroads into Gaul. The body- 
guard of Augustus was composed of Germans. 
Tiberius advanced to the Elbe, and Germany 
would probably have become a Roman province, 
if his successor Varus had not, by violent mea- 
sures, destroyed the advantages which his prede- 
cessor had gained. The Romans under Ger- 
manicus made another attempt to gain a footing 
in Germany, but failed ; and from this time the 
different German tribes greatly distracted their 
government. Whether the Goths, as is generally 
believed, were originally located beyond the Baltic, 
in the extreme North, is uncertain : they are first 
mentioned as appearing under Carracalla, A. D. 
215, on the banks of the Danube. Here they 
mingled with other tribes, and extended across 
the north and towards the south-east. In 367 the 



EUROPE. 101 

empire of the Goths was divided into two parts, 
— the kingdom of the Ostrogoths at the Black 
Sea, and the Visigoths in Dacia. Alaric, King: of 
the Visigoths, took and pillaged Rome in 409. 

The subversion of the Roman Empire in the 
West, under Genseric king of the Yandals, took 
place in 455; and in 476 Augustulus, the last of 
the Emperors of the Occident, was seized at Ra- 
venna by Odoacer, chief of the German auxiliaries, 
who made himself king. Fourteen years after- 
wards he was conquered by Theodoric, and the 
Roman Empire in the West entirely destroyed. 
With the destruction of the Western Empire a 
new social constitution was introduced into Europe, 
which with its various forms and modifications 
appears among those of the present day. The 
period, from the destruction of the Empire to the 
discovery of America in 1492, is called the Middle 
Ages, during which new kingdoms and new con- 
stitutions were formed under the influence of the 
feudal system, the Christian religion, and in- 
creasing civilisation. 



THE MEROVINGIAN DTNASTY. 

Under the Merovingians the Franks sunk into 
decay, but revived in the family of Pepin, the last 
Merovingian king. Childeric III. was compelled 
to retire to a convent in 752, when Pepin was 
raised to the throne. Pepin died in 768, and was 
succeeded by his son Charlemagne, who through a 
F 3 



102 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

reign of forty-six years pursued one design ; viz. 
to unite all the nations of German origin into one 
political body, under one chief; to establish their 
preponderance over neighbouring states; to ci- 
vilise them by the introduction of arts and sciences; 
and, by abolishing the power of independent dukes, 
to unite all the branches of government in his own 
person. In prosecution of this plan Charlemagne 
commenced a war against the Saxons, who had 
long struggled with his predecessors ; but it cost 
him thirty years of hard labour to tame the spirit 
and overturn the power of this gallant people, and 
to introduce Christianity among them. He ob- 
tained an easier conquest over the Longobards, 
and united them to the crown of the Franks, and 
in 778 conquered Spain, giving it the name of 
the Spanish Marches. Soon after the imperial 
dignity, which had lain in abeyance since 476, was 
revived in the person of Charlemagne by Eope 
Leo, who placed the imperial crown on his head 
while kneeling at the altar in the church of 
St. Peter, in celebration of Christmas. 

Thus the empire of Charlemagne extended from 
the Tiber to the Eider; from the Ebro in Spain 
to the German Ocean ; and from the Atlantic to 
the Elbe and river Raab in Hungary. Charle- 
magne was not a mere statesman and a soldier : 
he united to high talents in these characters a 
genuine love for the liberal arts and sciences, and 
did every thing in his power to promote their 
cultivation. He brought the clergy under a better 
discipline, administered the laws justly, and did 



EUROPE. 103 

for a rude and barbarous age what a master spirit 
only could effect, and what can never be estimated 
too highly. 

Charlemagne was succeeded by the only one of 
his sons who survived him, Louis le Debonnaire, a 
good-natured and highly devout man, but who 
possessed none of the high, rare qualities of his 
glorious father. Under him the kingdom was 
divided among his four sons, and rebellions and 
dissensions distracted every part. These were at 
last accommodated by the celebrated treaty of 
Verdun in 843 ; by which Lothar, as Emperor, 
was given Italy and Lorraine; Charles, France 
properly so called ; and Louis, all Germany on the 
right of the Rhine. Thus Germany and France 
became independent kingdoms. 

After the death of Louis the kingdom was 
again divided into three parts, called Bavaria, 
Franconia, and Alemannia, by his sons Carloman, 
Louis, and Charles-le- Gras, under whom, after 
the death of his brothers, it was again united, and 
he was also recognised as king of France. This 
lasted but a short time. 

In 911 the Carlovingian race were extinguished 
in Germany, and in 919 Henry, Duke of Saxony, 
was elected as Henry I. Five Henrys, and one 
Conrad of the House of Saxony, succeeded each 
other, during which many changes took place. 
Disputes with the Popes arose: councils were 
held, and the Crusades were undertaken, and 
eventually proved advantageous to Germany by 
F 4 



104 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

increasing commerce, and developing a better poll 
tical constitution. 



HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN. 

Conrad of Hohenstaufen, Duke of Franconia, 
was elected to the crown in 1138 : he was engaged 
in many struggles with his rebellious subjects; 
undertook a crusade, and died two years after his 
return from Palestine in 1152, and was succeeded 
by his nephew Frederic of Suabia, in whose reign 
the contests between the Guelphs and Ghibelines 
commenced. He undertook a crusade when almost 
seventy years of age, but was drowned in at- 
tempting to cross the Calycadmus on horseback. 

Henry IV. succeeded his father, whose am- 
bition he inherited, but not his spirit or his virtues. 
His reign was marked by his dishonourable im- 
prisonment of Richard Coeur de Lion of England, 
who on his return from Palestine, being thrown 
by a storm on the Italian coast, was given up by 
the Emperor to his enemy, Leopold of Austria. 
He obtained possession of the Sicilian States in 
1194, but governed with so much cruelty as to 
entail eternal ignominy on his name. Henry died 
in 1197, and was succeeded by his son Frederic, 
who was constantly engaged in quarrels and broils 
with the Pope. He was succeeded by Conrad, 
Manfred, and Conradin, who was taken prisoner 
by Charles of Anjou, and publicly executed at 
Naples, on the 29th of October, 1218. With 



EUEOPE. 105 

him expired the powerful House of Hohen- 
staufen. 

Rudolph of Hapsburg, a man in every way 
fitted to hold the reins of government during so 
stormy a period, mounted the imperial throne. 
Hudolph united valour, gallantry, experience, and 
prudence in his character : he took and destroyed 
upwards of seventy castles, whose owners had 
made robbery their profession : he united the in- 
terests of three German electors with his own, by 
the marriages of his daughters, and obtained Bo- 
hemia from King Ottocar. He was succeeded by 
Albrecht, or Albert I., a man in every respect his 
inferior, — proud, selfish, and mean. He it was 
whom William Tell so nobly and so boldly op- 
posed, and from whose tyranny he rescued his 
countrv. 

Louis of Bavaria and Charles of Bohemia suc- 
ceeded. The latter founded the University of 
Prague, 1348. He was succeeded by his son Wen- 
ceslaus, an arbitrary, whimsical ruler, who was 
deposed and succeeded by his brother Sigismund, 
a man of great talent, but faulty as his brother. 
It was in his reign that the celebrated Council of 
Constance was held, on account of the acknow- 
ledged improvement necessary in the church. 

The doctrines of Wickliff had been brought to 
Prague by Jerome, who had studied at Oxford, 
and were now making great progress in Bohemia 
and Germany. A council was therefore con- 
voked, in 1414, at Constance; but that council 
incurred eternal infamy and hatred by the burning 
F 5 



106 TOIVEESAL HISTOEY. 

of Huss and Jerome of Prague. They both died 
with Christian courage and fortitude ; and the 
flame of their pile soon shed its glorious light 
throughout Germany, — persecution only adding 
fuel to the flame. Thus dawned that magnifi- 
cently great and glorious day which was to shine 
so brilliantly over the sixteenth century. 

In 1419 forty, thousand people assembled on a 
mountain, to which they gave the name of Mount 
Tabor, and, with John Ziska at their head, held 
public worship, and took the holy sacrament, 
after the manner of the great reforming martyrs, 
Huss and Jerome. 

Frederic III., Duke of Austria, was raised to 
the German throne in 1440. He reigned for 
half a century, during which a new order of 
things and mighty changes took place around him. 
The Byzantine empire was destroyed by the 
Osman Turks ; Spain united by the marriage of 
Ferdinand and Isabella. Gunpowder was intro- 
duced ; new universities instituted ; and the art 
of printing introduced ; the passage of the Cape 
of Good Hope first made, and America dis- 
covered. But Frederic took no part in all these 
great events and changes. Time was, however, 
bringing great things to pass. His son Maxi- 
milian, Archduke of Austria, married Maria, only 
daughter and heiress of " Charles the Bold" of 
Burgundy ; thus uniting her rich inheritance with 
that of Hapsburg. Under the government of 
Maximilian Germany was divided into ten 
circles, for the better execution of the decisions 



EUROPE. 107 

of the Imperial Chamber, before whom all com- 
plaints were to be brought, — a fine of 1000 gold 
marks having been imposed on all who should 
disturb the peace. But the Almighty was work- 
ing his own work, and vain was the arm of man 
to oppose him. 

The Reformation proceeded from the Univer- 
sity of Wittemberg. Disaffection to the church 
of Rome was first excited by the scandalous sale 
of indulgences by the Dominican friar Tetzel. 
Martin Luther, a monk of the Augustin order, 
having been eye-witness of the corruptions of the 
Papal court at Rome, and disgusted with the 
sight, set himself to oppose Tetzel with great 
zeal and fervour. At first he only declared him- 
self hostile to the sale of indulgences : but reason- 
ing and reflection opened his eyes, and growing 
bold in the faith, he soon began to shake the 
Papal hierarchy to its foundation by the thunders 
of his eloquence and the unspeakable worth of 
his cause. The Almighty fiat had now gone 
forth ; a quenchless beam of light irradiated the 
moral darkness with which Europe had been en- 
shrouded for many centuries. Not the thunders 
of the Vatican, the ban of Papal princes, nor the 
voice of assembled councils, could any longer 
withhold from the minds of men the great prin- 
ciples of religious freedom and liberty of con- 
science. The new doctrines were boldly preached 
in the universities and in the pulpits, and spread 
themselves through Sweden, Denmark, Switzer- 
land, and England. Translations of the Scrip- 
f 6 



108 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

tures were freely distributed. Luther and his 
friend Melancthon were followed by persecution 
from the Papal powers, and by thousands of ad- 
miring converts. The name of Protestants was 
given to the followers of the new doctrines, 
because they protested against the Diet of Spires, 
in 1529. At the Diet of Augsburg, in 1531, 
they were permi^ed to present their profession of 
faith, written by Melancthon in twenty-eight 
chapters. The Diet, however, decided that the 
new heresy should be put down. Wars and perse- 
cutions continued to rage ; but the Reformation 
advanced. 

Ferdinand L, during his short reign, in 1558 — 
1569, had a severe struggle with the Pope, who 
required of him to introduce the inquisition 
throughout Germany, and to abolish all printing- 
presses, except those he should please to approve. 
Ferdinand reminded his Holiness that there had 
been Emperors before there were Popes ; that if 
the church needed to be represented, it should be 
by such a head as Christ himself, when on earth, 
presented; namely, without pomp or worldly power. 
Since that period no German Emperor has been 
crowned at Rome. It was at this period, 1563, 
that the Pope, in order to re-establish his influence 
in Germany, disseminated the order of the Jesuits, 
founded by Ignatius Loyola, in 1540. Under 
Rudolph II., who reigned from 1576 to 1612, 
were formed the union of the Protestants and the 
league of the Catholics, of which the consequences 
were the Thirty Years' War, which was secretly 



EUKOPE. 109 

fomented by the Jesuits, in whose hands Rudolph 
was a mere tool. 

In 1619, Ferdinand II., a pupil of the Jesuits, 
was elected Emperor, in opposition to the Elector- 
Palatine, who accepted the crown of Bohemia, 
relying on the assistance of his father-in-law, 
James I. of England. The consequences were 
war and bloodshed, that devastated the country, 
and overflowed it with the blood of its best 
subjects, until " He who ruleth in the councils of 
princes, and maketh even the wrath of man to 
praise him," brought about the deliverance of 
Germany by the arms of Gustavus Adolphus, 
king of Sweden. The peace of Westphalia, con- 
cluded at Osnabriick with the Swedes, and at 
Munster with the French, in 1648, reconciled the 
nations of Europe, and gave Germany a new po- 
litical form. The struggle between France and 
Austria was, however, very often renewed, with 
little advantage to either. 

The death of Charles II. of Spain extinguished 
the Spanish line of Hapsburg. Charles had nomi- 
nated Philip of Aragon, grandson of Louis XIV., 
heir to the whole monarchy. This kindled the 
war of succession in Spain. France and Spain 
united, and Austria was aided by Holland and 
England during the reigns of William and Anne ; 
George I. assisted Austria against Spain, whose 
fleet was destroyed by Admiral Byng; and 
George II. gave the Austrian cause his support 
against France, which was concluded by the peace 
of Aix-la-Chapelle. 



110 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

From 1763 to the war of the French Revo- 
lution, Germany enjoyed peace under Joseph II., 
which produced the most beneficial consequences 
to that country, in the development of the powers 
of the human mind, the cultivation of the arts and 
sciences, the improvement of agriculture, increase 
of population, and the amelioration of the admi- 
nistration of different countries. The whole poli- 
tical system of Europe was on the eve of a great 
change, when Joseph died, and was succeeded by 
his brother Leopold. 

The new order of things commenced in France 
was viewed in a very different light in Germany. 
The German states in Lorraine and Alsace suf- 
fered greatly, and the French, taking every ad- 
vantage, soon overflowed Germany, but were re- 
pulsed by an alliance formed between Germany, 
Austria, and Prussia in 1792. The German Em- 
pire decided to take part in the war against France. 
Prussia soon after withdrew from the coalition. 

Bonaparte, after his return from Egypt, de- 
feated the Austrians at Marengo, in January 1800, 
and reconquered Italy, while his general Moreau 
gained the battle of Hohenlinden, and advanced 
toward Vienna. The consequence of these de- 
cisive victories was a peace concluded with Austria 
in the name of the German empire, which placed 
France in possession of all the German countries 
on the left side of the Rhine, comprehending the 
Austrian Netherlands and Lombardy in Italy. 
This peace was afterwards interrupted, and Na- 
poleon occupied Vienna, and gained the battle of 



EUROPE. Ill 

Austerlitz. This was followed by the peace of 
Presburg in December 1805, greatly to the ad- 
vantage of France. 

In 1806 the Rhenish Confederation was formed, 
under the protection of Bonaparte, who declared 
he no longer recognised the existence of the 
German Empire; whereupon Francis abdicated 
the title of Emperor of Germany, assuming that 
of Emperor of Austria, to which he annexed his 
German states. In 1812, not only the troops of 
all the princes in the Rhenish Confederation fol- 
lowed Napoleon in his Russian expedition, but 
even Austria joined his banners. The retreat of 
Napoleon, however, decided the fate of Germany. 
In the treaty of Paris it was settled that Germany 
should not again be elected into an empire ; and 
at the Congress of Vienna the act of the German 
Confederacy was concluded, by which the sove- 
reign princes and free towns of Germany agree 
to defend each other upon any attack, not to make 
war on each other, and govern by a federative 
Diet, in which Austria shall preside. This con- 
federation still exists ; and under it, during a long 
peace, many of the German states have made great 
advances in civilisation and literary knowledge. 



PRUSSIA. 

The Prussians were a Sclavonic race. Their 
early history is wrapped in such complete barbarism 
and gross idolatry as to rob it of all interest. In 



112 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

the twelfth century, Balislaus, king of Poland, 
attempted to subdue the Prussians, and convert 
them to Christianity, and called in the Teutonic 
knights to his assistance ; but the arduous task of 
Christianising the country occupied fifty years of 
war and bloodshed to accomplish. From this 
period we find Poland and Prussia engaged in 
frequent wars, sometimes with each other, some- 
times with other kingdoms ; frequently dependent 
on and frequently opposed to each other, or united 
with Sweden, until Frederic William, who reigned 
from 1640 to 1688 with firmness and prudence, 
obtained the entire sovereignty of Prussia, which 
had been held in fief by the House of Branden- 
burg. Frederic improved the administration of 
his country, encouraged agriculture, commerce, 
and industry, and by wise measures greatly in- 
creased the population of his dominions. He was 
succeeded by his son Frederic III., whose cha- 
racter was totally unlike that of his illustrious 
father. The father had shaken off the yoke of 
Austria ; the son again submitted to it. The 
father was economical : the son a spendthrift, vain, 
and fond of show. In 1701 he placed the royal 
crown on his own head at Konigsberg, declaring 
Prussia a kingdom. Under his reign the Prussian 
territory was unimportant; but he encouraged 
the arts and sciences, founded the university of 
Halle and the academy of sciences, and another 
for sculpture and pictures, at Berlin. He was suc- 
ceeded in 1713 by his son Frederic William I., — a 
good economist, and upon the whole a shrewd 



EUROPE. 113 

man, but a mere soldier, without any pretension 
to taste or refinement. He laid the foundation of 
the military power of Prussia, and left a large 
treasury and flourishing population. His private 
character, as depicted by his daughter the Mar- 
gravine of Anspach-Bayreuth, is most disgusting. 
He was succeeded by his son, Frederic II., or 
Frederic the Great, in 1740, who (by a combination 
of high talents and restless activity of mind, se- 
conded by good fortune, a well disciplined army, 
a wise government, and good laws,) raised the 
Prussian state to a degree of power and influence 
she had never before possessed. Bold and for- 
tunate as a conqueror, he deserves yet greater 
praise as a ruler. He considered himself but as 
the first servant of the state, and presided over its 
affairs with the care of a father, proving that 
under a high-minded ruler the most extensive 
liberty of the press is not incompatible with the 
purposes of government, even under an absolute 
monarchy. 

While young, and under the tyranny of his 
father, Frederic, encouraged by his mother Sophia 
Dorothea, sister of George II. of England, culti- 
vated his natural taste for the sciences and belles 
lettres. Thus he knew how to support the rising 
fortunes of his kingdom by keeping up that gallant 
and warlike spirit which his own talents had at 
first inspired; at the same time that he gave 
every encouragement to the arts of peace and civi- 
lisation. Although the merits of the ambitiou 
Frederic were very great, the partition of Poland 



114 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

must ever remain a blot or stain upon his glory. 
That unfortunate country had, for upwards of a 
century, been torn to pieces by wars with Russia, 
and internal wars full of scenes of misery, and 
deeds of rapine secretly fomented by Catherine 
of Russia. Frederic, ever on the watch to im- 
prove his own position, accelerated the ruin of 
Poland by intrigues with the courts of Vienna 
and Petersburg ; and it is generally believed that 
the odium of the partition rests with Frederic. 
In the distressed and distracted state of Poland 
this humane triumvirate (Russia, Prussia, and 
Austria) determined that the only decisive remedy 
was, their asserting their respective claims to cer- 
tain districts lying within the Polish boundaries. 
All Europe were variously occupied by national 
concerns at that period ; so that Frederic, taking 
advantage of opportunity, succeeded in this fla- 
grant violation of national justice and honour, and 
obtained the partition of Polish Prussia and of 
Great Poland. From that time Prussia has been 
divided into Eastern and Western Prussia. Fre- 
deric died at Sans Souci in 1786, in the 47th year 
of his reign and the 75th year of his age, leaving 
a greatly enlarged territory, a full treasury, a 
fine army, and high political influence. Whether 
viewed as a philosopher, a soldier, or a king, he was 
an eminently great man. But Frederic was a pro- 
fessed infidel, a severe husband, and a violator of 
law, justice, and humanity, when they stood in the 
way of his insatiable ambition. 

Frederic William II. succeeded his uncle in 



EUROPE. 115 

1788, and reigned until 1797. He had not the 
talents or abilities of his predecessor ; but inherited 
his ambition, and was the first to take the field 
against republican France, by which he lost a fine 
army, and gained but little credit. Poland was 
still an object of oppression and violence. The 
courts of Vienna, Petersburg, and Berlin resolved 
to divide the country among themselves. The 
Poles were required to sign a treaty confirming 
the partition, to which the Diet were refractory ; 
but some of the most violent members having 
been sent back to their provinces, the others were 
locked into a room, and, surrounded by an armed 
force, were obliged to sign the required declaration 
in Sept. 1793. In this manner two- thirds of the 
Polish territories were alienated, and in 1795 
Russia demanded the remaining third, and was 
supported by the king of Prussia. The unfor- 
tunate Poles made a vigorous and spirited resist- 
ance under Kosciusko, who opposed Suvarof with 
great bravery but unequal power. He was defeated 
and taken prisoner. After this the Poles could 
no longer resist their enemies. The kingdom was 
divided, and the existence of Poland terminated. 
The inglorious reign of Frederic was brought to a 
conclusion, in Nov. 1797, by death. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Frederic William III. The new 
king found himself surrounded by difficulties in- 
ternal and external. Disputes with Russia, France, 
and England followed each other. After the battle 
of Jena, Bonaparte occupied Berlin, the king and 
his family retreating to Koningsberg, and JSTapo- 



116 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

leon made himself master of the whole kingdom. 
At the peace of Tilsit, Frederic William recovered 
the half of it back from the conqueror, and set 
himself to work to improve the condition of his 
now reduced territories. In 1812 Prussia joined 
the Russians in a war against France ; but at the 
peace of Paris it was settled that she should be 
placed as in 1805. After the escape of Napoleon 
from Elba, Prussia took part in the new war — 
was defeated at Ligny, and shared in the glories 
of Waterloo. At the second peace of Paris, 
Prussia obtained a further increase of territory 
near the Suer and Moselle, and formed the holy- 
alliance. A constitution, founded upon the prin- 
ciple of a national representation, has been pro- 
mised by the king ; but has not been, nor is there 
any appearance of its being, granted. 



SWITZERLAND. 

In the early periods of history this country was 
called Helvetia, or land of the Helvetians, — a tribe 
of German origin. It received the name of Swit- 
zerland from one of its own cantons, eminent for 
an early struggle to obtain independence. Under 
Julius Caasar, Helvetia was invaded by the Romans, 
and remained a Roman province until the empire 
was dissolved. Christianity is supposed to have 
been embraced in this country in the year 300. 
In 430 the Burgundians took possession of the 
southern and western districts, while the Alle- 



EUROPE. 117 

manni conquered the northern and eastern parts. 
Thus Switzerland was contended for by different 
German states, by the Burgundians and by 
France, all of which obtained districts which oc- 
casionally changed masters as the various parties 
succeeded, until 1264, when Count Rudolph, of 
Habsburg, compelled the whole country to ac- 
knowledge him Chief. His son and successor, Al- 
brecht, governed them with great tyranny, and 
having, in the Governor Gessler, found one whose 
tyrannous folly exceeded even his own, a league 
was entered into by a few spirited men to rescue 
their country from his cruel oppression ; but their 
designs were prematurely discovered by the well- 
known incident of the refusal of William Tell to 
comply with an absurd order of the frantic Gessler, 
w T hich led to the most gallant struggles, for that 
independence they at last obtained, ever recorded 
by history. 

In 1518, Zuinglius, having attacked various doc- 
trines of the Catholic church, preached openly 
against the sale of indulgences, as Luther had 
done the preceding year in Germany. Religious 
zeal descended into fanaticism, and for some years 
distracted various cantons with division and civil 
war. When Calvin, though differing greatly from 
Luther, placed himself at the head of the Refor- 
mation in Switzerland, he established his own pecu- 
liar tenets, purified the natives of their dissensions, 
and in time peace was restored, which lasted unin- 
terrupted by external causes for more than three 
hundred years, during which they overlooked the 



118 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

changes which time and circumstance had brought 
about, in other countries, and, occupied with their 
own paltry jealousies, heeded not the awful warning 
of the French revolution, and neglected to take 
advantage of the first seven years to compromise 
matters with the new principles. 

Unfortunately the extraordinary supineness and 
selfishness of her rulers have stripped Switzerland 
of the enviable distinction she might have borne 
among the nations of Europe, and placed her in 
the very lowest grade of the political scale. 

The inhabitants of the Pays du Vaud, in 1796, 
cast themselves on French protection ; and in the 
beginning of 1798 a French army of 40,000 men, 
under Generals Brune and Schauenberg, entered 
Switzerland, defeated the Bernese, united Geneva 
to the French republic, and established a new 
constitution, under the name of the Helvetic Re- 
public. The French took military possession of 
Switzerland ; but various changes took place, until 
the allied powers entered it in December 1813. 
The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, recognised the 
perpetual neutrality of the Swiss cantons, and the 
inviolability of their territory. But, placed between 
the rival powers of France and Austria, Switzer- 
land will ever be in danger of becoming the seat 
of war. The influence of Austria is everywhere 
felt and acknowledged ; but were the cantons of 
Switzerland united among themselves, they might 
yet vindicate the ancient glories of their land, and 
reclaim that heritage for which their ancestors so 
nobly fought, instead of wasting their blood and 



EUROPE. 119 

strength in petty quarrels and intestine broils, 
destroying the advantages gained from neighbour- 
ing powers, and forfeiting liberty to the worst 
kind of despotism — that of Radicalism, which is, 
unfortunately, their present position. 



FRANCE. 

The earliest accounts of France are to be found 
in the history of Rome. When Gaul first became 
an object of Roman ambition, it was peopled by 
tribes called Celts or Gauls, — fierce, brave, and war- 
like hordes, — who were at length conquered by 
Julius Caesar, and continued to be a Roman pro- 
vince, until the dissolution of the Western Empire 
produced the division of territory by which 
Europe is still distinguished. 

The first race of monarchs were the Merovingian. 
But it would be tedious to follow their history, 
which consists of little else than a continued series 
of usurpations and murders. By degrees the su- 
perior influence of the Maires du Palais rendered 
them merely nominal sovereigns. In 687 this 
dignity became hereditary in the person of Charles 
Martel. 

Pepen Heristel, who exercised his power with 
vigour and prudence, defeated the Saracens, and 
conquered the Frisons. At his death, his son, 
Pepen the Short, succeeded, and in 754 was pro- 
claimed king at Soissons. This prince, who seems 
to have united in himself the virtues and vices of 



120 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

a conqueror, died in 768 ; the epitaph inscribed on 
his tomb was " Pepin, pe.re de Charlemagne." 
* The reign of Charlemagne and his successors, 
unto the treaty of Yerdun in 843, forms part of 
the history of Germany. From this epoch the 
history of France as a separate kingdom begins. 

Charles the Bald took the reigns of govern- 
ment. He was an energetic powerful prince, but 
found determined enemies in the Normans, to sub- 
due whom cost him immense trouble, blood, and 
treasure. His more northern neighbours also an- 
noyed and disturbed him sadly. He died in 877, 
and was succeeded by his son Louis le Begue, "the 
stammerer." He was deficient in prudence and 
vigour. After a short and feeble reign he died in 
879. Louis III. and Carloman divided the king- 
dom. A scene of faction and confusion followed, 
which ended by placing the Emperor of Germany, 
Charles le Gros, on the throne of France ; but he 
was utterly incapable of defending the kingdom 
conferred on him. The Carlovingian race of 
monarchs were now become a degenerate remain- 
der of those master spirits, who, from being 
mayors, have stepped into the thrones of their 
masters, and was at length extinguished by Hugh 
Capet, the founder of the Capetian or third dy- 
nasty of France. Hugh Capet displayed the ta- 
lents necessary to the government of a rude warlike 
people. The same firm, undaunted spirit, which 
gave him ascendency, rendered him formidable to 
his enemies. He died in 996, and was succeeded by 
his son Robert, who inherited his father's virtues, 



EUEOPE. 121 

but not his firmness. Pope Gregory lorded it over 
his conscience to the injury of his territory. He 
died in 1031 ; when Henry, his eldest son, ascended 
the throne, though opposed by his mother Con- 
stance ; but, aided by Robert Duke of Normandy, 
Henry succeeded in establishing himself. The 
disputes of this reign laid the foundation of that 
rancour which afterwards subsisted between the 
monarchs of France and England. Henry died 
in 1060, and was succeeded by his son Philip I., 
who resembled his father only in the animosity 
which he bore to William of Normandy. In every 
part of his conduct Philip evinced a treacherous 
and mean disposition ; a general laxity of govern- 
ment took place, and might have been productive 
of dreadful consequences, had not Louis VI. (le 
Gros), who succeeded him in 1108, been a prince 
remarkable for his many virtues. Louis sup- 
ported Robert of Normandy, when his brother, 
the English monarch, deprived him of the Duchy 
of Normandy, and thus drew on himself the anger 
and power of Henry, who constantly defeated him 
with great loss. Louis died in 1137, and was 
succeeded by his son Louis VII. (le Jeune), a 
weak, superstitious, cruel prince, who, among other 
follies, undertook an ostentatious, vain pilgrimage 
to Jerusalem, accompanied by his wife Eleanor, 
heiress of Guienne and Poitou, whose frivolities 
so offended her husband, that on his return he 
divorced her. 

Henry Duke of Normandy, more intent on in- 



122 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

creasing his territory than his domestic felicity, 
married Eleanor, by which he became much more 
powerful than his sovereign, and thus was France 
precipitated into a disastrous scene of conflict, 
which lasted upwards of 300 years. Louis died in 
1180. Philip II., his son, governed with such good 
fortune, that he has been surnamed Angustin. The 
situation of England, during the distracted reign 
of John, gave him advantages which he managed 
with the utmost policy, depriving her of Nor- 
mandy and many other provinces. His reign was 
marked by the first creation of Mareschals of 
France. He died after a reign of forty-four years, 
leaving his crown to Louis VII. , whose reign was 
rendered infamous by the massacre of Beziers, 
in which 60,000 Albigenses perished. Louis IX. 
was so deeply tinctured by the religious super- 
stitions of the times, as to obtain the name of 
" Saint." He joined a crusade against the Saracens, 
in which he was taken prisoner, and obtained his 
ransom by the surrender of Damietta. He founded 
the Sorbonne, and headed a new crusade to Tunis, 
in which he died of the plague in 1270, and was 
succeeded by his son Philip the Hardy, who, with 
his son Philip the Fair and his three sons, occupied 
the throne with little honour and less advantage 
to the country, until 1328, when by the death of 
Charles the dynasty of the Capetians expired. 

At the death of Charles a regency was found 
necessary during the precarious situation of the 
queen. Philip of Valois and Edward III. of 
England, grandson of Philip the Fair, by the 



EUROPE. 123 

mother's side, affirmed their right not only to the 
regency but to the crown. The claim was decided 
in favour of Philip, who, after the widow queen 
had given birth to a daughter, was declared king 
upon the Salic law. Edward could not brook his 
disappointment. Various jealousies and offences 
arose between the rival monarchs. Edward was 
for some time occupied in his favourite scheme of 
subduing Scotland ; but at last resolved to avenge 
the affront offered by Philip, and for this purpose 
marched directly into France with 50,000 men. 
For eighteen years the two countries were dis- 
tracted and impoverished by expensive wars, under 
different pretences; though the true cause was the 
animosity borne by the two monarchs. In 1346 
Edward again landed in France with 30,000 men. 
Philip collected an army, it is said, of 126,000 men. 
The impetuous bravery of Edward w r ould not 
allow him to hesitate on account of inferiority of 
numbers ; and the splendid victory of Cressy, w T ith 
the reduction of Calais, proved that he had not 
overrated his own powers. By the mediation of 
the Pope a truce for three years was concluded, 
during which Philip died, and was succeeded by 
his son John le Bon, in 1350, who soon found 
himself en^ao-ed in a war with England, under the 
command of the every where victorious Black 
Prince, who in the battle of Poictiers took the 
French monarch prisoner. One success followed 
another ; until a peace, highly honourable to the 
English, was concluded in 1360. The affairs 
of France, meantime, became almost desperate, 
G 2 



124 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

John, unable to pay his ransom, remained a 
prisoner at large in England, where, in 1384, his 
existence terminated. 

Under the reign of Charles V., after the death 
of the Black Prince and his father, France re- 
covered, in a great degree, her position as respects 
England, and restored the integrity of her domi- 
nions ; but his career was short, and that of his 
son, Charles VI., was full of disorders, and dis- 
astrous in the extreme. Henry V. of England, 
taking advantage of the disturbed state of France, 
soon found a pretext for going to war, and, land- 
ing with 30,000 men, took Harfleur by storm, 
overran the greater part of France, and eventually 
made himself master of the whole kingdom ; when 
it wa3 agreed that he should marry the Princess 
Catherine, and from thenceforth France should be 
annexed to the English crown. The death of 
Henry placed England under the regency of the 
Duke of Bedford, and was soon followed by that 
of Charles. The young Henry was recognised as 
king of France ; but a few adherents retained their 
allegiance to their native prince, and gradually 
recovered possession of parts of the kingdom. In 
this contest France was greatly assisted by the 
two Amazons, Joan d'Arc and Agnes Sorrel, who 
gained more victories than any two generals. 
After the victories of Formigny and Castillon by 
Agnes Sorrel, the invaders were forced to abandon 
the country ; and in 1450 Calais and the isles of 
Jersey and Guernsey were all that remained to the 
English. 



EUROPE. 125 

Louis XI. ascended the throne in 1461, and, 
after freeing himself from external enemies, turned 
his fury against his nobles, crushing them by 
cruelty and perfidy in every possible way, until he 
had rendered himself absolute, and thus laid the 
foundation of that despotic government which 
eventually led to the blood-stained revolution of 
France. 

Charles VI. was but fourteen years of age at 
the time of his father's death. His reign is only 
remarkable for his having been the chosen hus- 
band of Anne, daughter of Louis, while she was 
regent of France, and a foolish expedition against 
Naples. He died of apoplexy in 1498, and with 
him expired the elder line of Valois ; and Louis, 
Duke of Orleans, was called to the throne under 
the name of Louis XII. The prudence and 
wisdom of this prince, joined to his success in 
arms, procured for him the appellation of " The 
Titus of France." As a matter of policy, he 
married Mary, the sister of Henry VIII. of Eng- 
land. The successor of Louis was Francis, Duke 
of Angouleme, Bretagne, and Valois. 

Francis I. flattered himself he should be able to 
ascend the imperial throne, but was disappointed 
by the influence of Charles V. of Spain, which 
created an animosity between these two princes 
that filled not only their own countries but all 
Europe with wars, and was terminated oniy by 
the death of Francis, at Rambouillet, in 1547. 
The private character of Francis was detestable, 
and his court a scene of intrigue and debauchery. 
G 3 



126 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

During his reign the reformed religion spread 
rapidly through France, though every attempt 
was made to suppress it by penal laws and cruel 
persecutions, which, under the reign of Henry II., 
was continued with the utmost bigotry and cruelty. 
But Henry's severities, instead of exterminating 
the Protestants, had the general effect of religious 
persecution — increasing the number. These cruel- 
ties were the prelude to 150 years of civil war. 

The feeble and brief reign of the son of Henry, 
Francis II., husband of Mary Stuart of Scotland, 
was only remarkable for the intolerance of the 
Duke of Guise who usurped the government. 
Duriug the minority of Charles IX., the in- 
famous Catherine of Medicis, the Queen Dowager, 
acted as regent, and, aided by the Duke of Guise, 
persecuted the Calvinists or Huguenots, as they 
were nicknamed by the Catholics, and committed 
the most horrible outrages on them, as well as 
cruel persecutions of all other Protestants, who 
were obliged to arm themselves in self-defence, 
under the great and good Gaspard de Coligny, 
Admiral of France, and the Prince of Conde. 
Nothing was too unjust, too barbarous, too in- 
sulting, and too cruel and revolting for Catherine 
and her party ; notwithstanding which, Coligny, 
and the Prince of Conde, compelled the court to 
accommodate matters with the persecuted Calvinists 
in three successive wars ; but the climax of Cathe- 
rine's diabolical revenge was the massacre of St. 
Bartholomew in 1572, when, in conjunction with 
her son Charles IX., she inveigled the heads of 



EUROPE. 127 

the Protestant party to Paris, under pretence 
of witnessing the marriage of Margaret of Va- 
lois and the young king of Navarre, afterwards 
Henry IV. The signal was to be the tolling of 
the great bell of the palace on the eve of St. 
Bartholomew. The direction of this plot was left 
to the Duke of Gruise ; and the prince of darkness 
himself could not have found a more willing or 
able coadjutor. The venerable Coligny was 
stabbed in his bed, and thrown from the window 
into the street ; where Henry, Count of Angou- 
leme, brother to the king, spurned him with his 
foot, exclaiming, " Courage, my friends, we have 
begun well, let us end as well ! " For five days 
and nights did this wretched butchery continue in 
Paris, without respect to age, sex, or condition. 
During the greater part of the massacre, Charles 
stood at a window of the palace, calling out " Kill, 
kill ! " and even fired himself on the unoffending 
Protestants. The streets of Paris were literally 
floating with blood, and blocked up with murdered 
Protestants ; and not content with this, the same 
orders were sent to all the provinces of the king- 
dom, and it is computed that not less than 90,000 
Protestants perished in the massacre ; but though 
the Almighty in his wisdom had permitted this 
diabolical work of butchery, he overruled all for 
good. The effect of the massacre was the reverse 
of what the Catholics and court had expected. 
Calvinism, instead of being destroyed, became 
more formidable from despair, and a thirst for re- 
venge was added to a desire for civil and religious 
G 4 



128 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

liberty. Powerful supporters arose, and the 
truths of the gospel prevailed. Though Henry 
III., who succeeded his brother in 1574, was a 
remorseless cruel bigot, under the Prince of Conde 
and the King of Navarre they were enabled to 
obtain peace on terms very favourable to the 
Protestant interest. Henry, fearing the power of 
the Duke of Guise, got him assassinated, — a deed 
which brought upon him the wrath of the whole 
Catholic party, and procured his own assassination 
by a Dominican Friar, at St. Cloud, in 1589. The 
assassin was honoured as a Saint at Paris, and the 
Pope expressed his approbation of the deed. Ca- 
therine died the same year with her son. Thus 
the fourth Capetian and second Valois branch be- 
came extinct. 

Under the reign of the gallant Henry IV. king 
of Navarre, the Protestants obtained the edict of 
Nantes in their favour, which was declared per- 
petual and inviolable. In all his endeavours to 
promote the welfare of his people he was ably se- 
conded by his wise and talented minister, Sully ; 
but the frantic Kavaillac assassinated this ex- 
cellent, high-minded prince only too soon for the 
happiness of France. His expression, s< I will not 
rest till every one of my peasants is rich enough 
to have a fowl for his soup on Sundays," has been 
gratefully preserved among the people. Louis XIII., 
unlike his father, was weak and feeble ; and under 
the corrupt administration of his ministers, the 
Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, the Protestants 
were again the subjects of persecution. He died 
in 1643, and was succeeded by his son Louis XI V., 



EUROPE. 129 

termed the Great. Louis made every effort to 
advance the commerce, wealth, and agriculture of 
the country, and was successful in several warlike 
undertakings ; but he revoked the edict of Nantes, 
and obliged the Protestants to seek refuge in other 
countries. In the opening years of the eighteenth 
century the Duke of Marlborough eclipsed the 
French military reputation; and one misfortune 
rapidly succeeding another, Louis was reduced to 
great difficulties and humiliations previous to the 
peace of Utrecht. Louis died in 1715, after a 
reign rendered remarkable by able ministers, 
generals, and men of letters, such as could not 
fail to render his reign one of the brightest in 
history ; and had he listened less to those flatterers 
who taught him to say, "l'Etat, c'est moi," he 
would have left behind him a name which few 
monarchs of ancient or modern history might not 
envy. Louis XV. succeeded while yet a child of 
H\e years. A regency council was formed with 
the Duke of Orleans at its head, for the manage- 
ment of public affairs. In 1726 Louis took the 
reins of government into his own hands, and 
through a long reign of troubles and internal dis- 
contents as well as external wars, guided them 
more in accordance with the caprice of his favourite 
mistresses, than according to the dictates of sound 
policy. Louis was a slave to sensual gratifications, 
in pursuit of which he involved his country in 
debts and difficulties, and filled his Parliaments 
with discontents, which were only terminated by 
his death. He was succeeded by his grandson, 
G 5 



130 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Louis XVI., who found a nation highly discon- 
tented, and ready to seize the first opportunity of 
showing their resistance to royal authority. The 
young king used every means in his power to 
secure the affections of his people; but he pro- 
bably drew the string of restraint a little too 
tight, and thus failed to insure peace or confidence. 
The internal peace of France was disturbed in 
1775 by one of those dearths so common in 
France, which, together with some regulations re- 
specting the police of corn, excited the populace 
to revolt and insurrection. Louis seemed willing 
to do every thing for the happiness of his people, 
except part with that absolute authority which he 
conceived to be his by right of inheritance. This 
was perhaps the greatest fault in the character of 
Louis : this it was that led him to the unpopular 
measure of dismissing Necker from the manage- 
ment of the finances, and entrusting it to Joly de 
Fleury. Necker was a great favourite with the 
people, and his dismissal led to contests and 
outrages on every side. Louis was sincerely de- 
sirous of promoting the welfare of his people ; but 
personal good qualities were totally insufficient to 
allay the fermentations which had broken out 
during his reign. The public supplies were ob- 
tained by loan, and every loan increased the 
weight of taxes : the public mind became irritated 
and discontented; and, finally, the nation was 
hurried into a revolution the most dreadfully 
important on record. 

During the twenty years that preceded the 



EUKOPE. 131 

French Revolution, a mighty change in public 
opinion, and in the mode of thinking, had been 
brought about, partly by the writings of Voltaire., 
Rousseau, Diderot, &c, and partly by the new 
constitution of America, from whence many dis- 
tinguished officers had returned with completely 
new political ideas. Among the Tiers-etat 9 or Com- 
mons, were many high-minded men, who now be- 
ginning to feel their own importance determined 
on bringing down the nobility and clergy, and 
giving a new form to the constitution. The tree 
of liberty was planted in Paris, and on the 17th 
June, 1789, they met, for the first time, under 
the name of the National Assembly. In October 
the Bastile was destroyed, and the Assembly made 
a public declaration of the rights of man, closed 
the churches, or prostituted them to the worst of 
purposes; abolished the privileges of the clergy, 
the nobility, tithes, game, and feudalism. 



FRANCE AS A REPUBLIC. 

In September, 1792, France was declared a 
republic, and royalty abolished. The tree of li- 
berty was planted in every large town through 
France and Belgium. From this period pen can- 
not indite, nor tongue describe, the accumulated 
horrors of that distracted country, under the san- 
guinary tyrants of the day, maddened by sudden 
power, infidelity, and unbridled passions. The 
blood of thousands rolled down the streets of 
G 6 



132 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Paris; the scaffold daily presented a scene at 
which humanity shuddered; but these wretches 
had lost all human feeling. Even women partook 
largely in the sanguinary mania ; and the diaboli- 
cal frenzy of open infidelity gloated over its vic- 
tims, and revelled in blood and slaughter. The 
excellent Louis, his unfortunate wife, and fault- 
less sister, after having been made to suffer every 
misery vice and cruelty could heap on them, were 
brought to the scaffold, and their sufferings ended 
by the guillotine, amidst the wild yells and insults 
of an insensate rabble. Robespierre^ St. Just, 
Barriere, Billaud, Yarennes, Lebou, and Collet 
d'Herbois, are names that must for ever be hateful 
to the Christian or rational man, and ever be a 
stain on the page of history. Of the two children 
of Louis, the Dauphin was cruelly imprisoned, 
and, it is said, poisoned. The princess escaped, 
with many others of the nobility, to England, 
and afterwards married the Duke d'Angouleme, 
her cousin. In 1795, France was placed under a 
Directory, and by it gained some degree of stability 
in its external and internal affairs. The furor of 
republicanism had now exhausted itself. The mad- 
dened wretches who had ruled in it had very 
generally fallen sacrifices to their own unprincipled 
party ; and rationality began to assume some 
sway, though religion was overturned. Nearly 
all Europe had taken arms against France, with 
varied success. In 1796, Bonaparte, then a 
young man of only twenty- six years of age, en- 
tered Italy with an army destitute of warlike 



EUROPE. 133 

equipments, defeated the Austrians and Piedmon- 
tese, overran the country, and in 1797 made an 
advantageous peace with Austria. The Venetian 
territory was next overthrown, and with the Seven 
Islands ceded to France. Batavia and Switzer- 
land were subdued; and in February, 1798, a 
republic, with a Consular constitution, was founded 
at Eome, and Pope Pius VI. taken prisoner to 
Paris, where he died in 1799. Egypt, Syria, 
Austria, Spain and Portugal, Russia and Turkey 
were attacked and invaded, and England frequently 
threatened by this extraordinary man, who, in 
1799, changed the government to a Consular, 
making himself First Consul; under which cha- 
racter he made peace with Spain, Russia, and 
Turkey in 1801, and with England in 1802, 
which was, however, of but short duration. In 
1804, Napoleon was placed as hereditary Emperor 
at the head of France, and in 1805 placed the 
crown of the Lombardian kings upon his own 
head, and in the course of the following year made 
his elder brother, Joseph, King of Naples and 
Sicily. The Principality of Lucca, with other 
territories, were given to his sister Eliza : Eugene 
Beauharnois, his stepson, he made Viceroy of 
Italy, and married him to the daughter of the 
King of Bavaria; his second brother he made 
hereditary and constitutional King of Holland ; 
his general, Bernadotte, was proclaimed Prince of 
Ponte Corvo, and raised to the heirship of the 
crown of Sweden ; to Murat, who had married 
his sister, he gave the Prussian part of Cleves and 



134 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

the Dukedom of Berg, with the title of Duke of 
Cleves and Berg ; Marshal Berthier, Neufchatel, 
and the title of Prince ; to his minister, Talleyrand, 
the title of Prince of Benevento; and, with an 
utter disregard of justice, overthrew the constitu- 
tion of the German empire, which had lasted a 
thousand years, to make way for the Rhenish Con- 
federation, of which Napoleon was named Protector. 
The successes of this great man (whom Ave now 
remember as a sort of blazing meteor passing over 
Europe, uprooting, overturning, and destroying 
for a few brief years, and then suddenly disap- 
pearing) were as brilliant as they were unparalleled. 
In 1809, with all Europe acknowledging his 
power, Great Britain alone excepted, he repu- 
diated the Empress Josephine, and married the 
young Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria, — 
hoping by this marriage to secure his posterity to 
the empire of France ; but vain are the plans of 
man, and foundationless the buildings of pride. 
Not content with the immense conquests he had 
obtained, and the height to which he had risen, 
Bonaparte made war against Russia ; and, depend- 
ing largely on his own presence, headed an im- 
mense army, and marched into that country. Murat 
entered Moscow, and kept possession two days. On 
the third the Russians set fire to their beautiful city 
in many parts. The conflagration was terrible, and 
the city was reduced to ashes. The French, thus 
deprived of all means of subsistence, were obliged 
to retreat. The severe and early winter of 1812 
destroyed the retreating and pursued army, — a very 



EUROPE. 135 

small number of whom reached France to tell the 
disastrous story. In the following March, Paris 
surrendered to the allied armies. The fallen Em- 
peror abdicated the throne, and was banished to 
the island of Elba, and the Bourbons again re- 
stored to the throne in the person of Louis XVIII. 
He was not, however, very pleasing to the people ; 
and Napoleon, having escaped from Elba, and 
landed at Cannes with 600 men, in twenty days 
replaced himself on the throne of France, from 
which he was for ever hurled a few weeks after by 
the results of the battle of Waterloo, and carried 
a prisoner to St. Helena, where he laid down his 
eventful life in 1821. 

Louis XVIII. died in Sept., 1824, and was 
succeeded by his brother Charles, who commenced 
his reign by some popular acts ; but the overruling 
spirit, hereditary in the Bourbons, broke out in 
Charles ; and scarcely had five years passed, ere the 
nation was, by three detestable ordinances drawn 
up by Prince Polignac and his associates, impelled 
to take up arms. A complete revolution, of three 
days only, drove the infatuated Charles from the 
throne — gave liberty to France, and in July, 1830, 
placed Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, on the 
throne, with the title of " King of the French." 
Since that period France has enjoyed external 
peace. Her religion is restored with more toler- 
ation than formerly, and the wounds made by a 
long struggle healed under Louis Philippe. Her 
finances, commerce, and population have greatly 
increased, and the intercourse with other Euro- 



13 6 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

pean countries greater than at any former pe- 
riod; but France is constantly agitated by strong 
under-currents and opposing interests, which 
threaten her peace. Taught by hard lessons of 
adversity, and possessing a strong and calm mind, 
Louis Philippe is perhaps better calculated than 
any other man in the world to rule a mercurial 
changeable people without their feeling the iron 
rod of power. His life has been frequently at- 
tempted ; but he has attained an honourable old 
age in the midst of a large fine family ; all of whom 
he has settled advantageously, and by so doing has 
connected himself with every crowned head in 
Europe. The marriage of the Duke de Mont- 
pensier with the Infanta of Spain was a violation 
of treaties, and will probably prove as impolitic as 
it has been offensive. In this instance the calcu- 
lating king and father triumphed over the clear- 
headed honourable prince and politician. * 



* Since writing the above (in the early part of the present 
year) a sudden and total revolution has taken place in France, 
by which Louis Philippe has been hurled from the throne, and 
his sons from their governments ; nearly all the expelled Royal 
Family have sought shelter in England, where, as heretofore, they 
find protection and Christian sympathy. France has again de- 
clared herself a republic, under a National Convention; but in her 
present excited and fearful state, who shall venture to say what a 
day will bring forth, or how her influence and example will 
operate on other countries and kingdoms in Europe, many of 
which are now in commotion ? 



EUROPE. 137 



SPAIN. 

The earliest inhabitants of Spain appear to have 
been Celtic tribes, who probably entered the 
Peninsula from the neighbouring country of Gaul, 
and occupied the northern districts, while the south 
was peopled by the Mauritani from the opposite 
coasts of Africa. After a long contest Spain was 
consolidated into a Roman province under the first 
imperial Csesar, and the Romans maintained do- 
minion over Spain for 400 years. In 419 the em- 
pire of the Visigoths was founded in Spain by 
Valia, which continued for several centuries. In 
the early part of the 8th century, the Moors, or 
Saracens, having conquered North Africa, led a 
large army into Spain, contending every inch of 
ground with the Goths, who valiantly opposed 
them. For several centuries the kingdom was 
divided between the Goths, who were Christians, 
and the Moors, who were Mahommedans, each party 
founding separate kingdoms. In the 10th century 
independent Moorish princes were reigning at 
Saragossa, Toledo, Valencia, Seville, Granada, 
and Cordova ; while Castile, Arragon, Galicia, Por- 
tugal, and many others, were governed by Spa- 
niards. Of these, the kings of Castile seem to 
have been the most successful against the Moors. 
In the 12th century the transactions of .the Chris- 



138 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

tian kingdoms of Spain began to take a wider 
range than heretofore, by the marriage of Philip 
the Fair of France with Johanna Queen of Na- 
varre. This led to important results, sometimes 
uniting in, and sometimes dissevering France, and 
even England, from the interests of Christian Spain ; 
until 1469, when, by the marriage of Ferdinand of 
Arragon with Isabella of Castile, the kingdoms of 
Castile and Leon were united to those of Arragon 
and Sicily. 

The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella was dis- 
tinguished by high feats of war, by the prudence 
the firmness, and the justice of the measures taken 
for the civil concerns of their subjects, for the in- 
stitution of the Hermandad, or " Holy Brother- 
hood," — an association of cities for the purpose of 
protecting travellers and property ; in all of which 
they were ably supported by their minister, Car- 
dinal Ximenes. Ferdinand completed what for- 
mer kings for many centuries had failed to effect — 
the total subjugation of the Moors in Spain. But 
the event which exercised most influence over the 
world was the discovery of America by Christo- 
pher Columbus, in 1492, — an achievement which 
this daring navigator could not have accomplished 
without the support of Isabella, who supplied him 
with three small ships. Yet, amid a host of vir- 
tuous actions, the characters of both Ferdinand and 
Isabella were stained by deep superstition. At an 
early age Isabella had vowed a vow to avenge the 
injuries clone against the Catholic faith, should she 
ever come to the crown ; and most truly did her hus- 



EUROPE. 139 

band and herself fulfil that vow to the utmost of 
their power. Isabella had ever been taught that 
priests, whose exemplary lives and learning were 
approved by the Church, were so many oracles to 
whom she was commanded by God to give ear. 
Thus it was that a queen, in all other respects the 
most gentle and amiable, was led by the deep bi- 
gotry of her education, and the councils of her 
equally bigoted minister Ximenes, to establish a 
tribunal so sanguinary, unjust, and horrible as the 
Inquisition, — an invention at which the soul of 
man revolts — whose every footstep is marked by 
blood, and whose pestilence it will take long cen- 
turies to overcome. This act has fixed an inde- 
lible stain on Ferdinand, Isabella, and Ximenes. 

Charles I. of Spain succeeded his father in the 
Netherlands, his paternal grandfather in Austria, 
and his maternal grandfather in Spain, in 1516. 
As a Spanish monarch, this accomplished despot, 
the cotemporary of Erasmus, Luther, and Frederic 
of Saxony, deserves unqualified indignation and 
reproach. It was during his turbulent, extravagant 
reign that Mexico and Peru were conquered by 
the first Cortes. In 1556 Charles abdicated the 
throne, on which he ruled with reckless tyranny, 
in favour of his son Philip, and retired to a monas- 
tery, where he died of melancholy. 

Philip II., husband of Mary Queen of England, 
was a sanguinary, narrow-minded despot, who, 
during a reign of forty -two years, exhausted the 
revenues of that vast monarchy, and shed oceans 
of blood in a vain struggle to retain the Nether- 



140 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

lands. Liberty prevailed, and floated its victorious 
banners over a country laid prostrate by fanaticism 
and bigotry. His " Invincible Armada," by which 
he thought to overcome Britain, was shattered by 
the only invincible and Almighty power, and its 
remnant destroyed by the gallantry of the English. 

Philip III. succeeded his father in 1598. He was 
more imbecile, and, if possible, more bigoted and 
superstitious than his predecessor. Under him 
Spain lost her best and most industrious inhabi- 
tants, by the expulsion of the Moors and Jews. 
Under Philip IV., Portugal, though cruelly op- 
pressed, shook off its bonds, and stood free from 
Spain. From this to 1761 the history of Spain 
is little more than a series of wars, external and in- 
ternal, in which Austria, France, the Netherlands, 
and England, were at various periods engaged, 
with little glory to either, and certainly with loss 
of territory, commerce, and population to Spain. 

In 1761 Charles III. signed what was called 
a family treaty between the houses of Bourbon, 
and took part in the war of France against Eng- 
land. During the American war she again joined 
France against England until 1783. Charles IV. 
succeeded his father in 1788. Urged by the family 
treaty and his own feelings, after the execution of 
Louis XVI. he ordered the French ambassador to 
leave Madrid; whereupon the Republic declared 
war upon Spain, and Spain formed an alliance 
with England. The Spanish war was conducted 
by Godoi, Duke of Alcudia, afterwards called the 
Prince of Peace, with varied success. At the 



EUROPE. 141 

peace of Amiens, Parma and Louisiana were 
given to France. In 1803, when war was re- 
newed between France and England, Spain en- 
deavoured to preserve a neutrality ; but this could 
not long continue ; and the famous victory of Tra- 
falgar, gained in October, 1805, by Lord kelson, 
was against the combined fleets of Spain and 
France, by which they sustained a heavy loss. 
Soon after the peace of Tilsit, a conspiracy, at- 
tributed to Godoi, Prince of Peace, (who was 
known to be a mere creature of Napoleon, and in 
treaty with him for the partition of Portugal,) 
caused great commotion. The palace of Godoi 
was attacked by a furious mob ; while the French 
troops were rapidly advancing upon the capital, 
and Charles IV. was compelled to abdicate the 
throne in favour of his "dearly beloved son," 
Ferdinando Carlos. Napoleon refused to recog- 
nise the new king, but invited him to an interview, 
and having got him into his power, obliged him to 
make shameful concessions ; after which the whole 
royal family were ordered into the interior of 
France, and Murat was confirmed lieutenant- o-e- 
neral of the kingdom by Napoleon, who named 
his brother Joseph king of Spain and the Indies, 
and guaranteed him the independence of his states 
in the four quarters of the globe. This aroused 
the whole Peninsula to arms ; and the defence of 
Saragossa soon taught the French what they 
might expect from a nation in arms for its dearest 
rights. They protested they would not lay down 
their arms till Ferdinand and his family were re- 



142 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

stored. In this they craved the assistance of Bri- 
tain ; and nobly did the heart of England respond 
to the call. The war now became virtually a con- 
test between France and England, under the 
separate command of Sir John Moore, Sir Robert 
Wilson, and Sir Arthur Wellesley (Duke of Wel- 
lington), who took the command in 1809 ; and 
after five campaigns, distinguished by brilliant 
operations and persevering patriotism, the French 
were, after the battle of Vittoria, entirely driven 
from Spain. Bonaparte, finding the Peninsula 
torn from his grasp, made a virtue of necessity, 
and released Ferdinand ; but this cruel, wretched 
bigot was wholly unworthy of the crown. He abo- 
lished the constitution of the Cortes, and restored 
the Inquisition in all its horrors ; and by his ty- 
ranny excited a rebellion, which broke out in Leon, 
Cadiz, Granada, and Seville. The king opposed 
them vigorously ; but the rebels were two power- 
ful, and he was obliged to put down the Inqui- 
sition, abolish the Jesuits, give freedom to the 
press, and restore the constitution of the Cortes. 
Thus was a flame lighted up in Spain that con- 
tinues to blaze to the present day. Riego, the 
most famous Guerilla leader on record, continued 
to annoy and distress the court party, while the 
French again entered and laid waste the wretched 
country. Riego was taken prisoner, and executed, 
under circumstances of great cruelty, in 1823. 
Many of the liberals sought refuge in Great Bri- 
tain. Anarchy and confusion continued to reign. 
Ferdinand exerted his power with an iron hand, 



EUEOPE. 143 

aided by the French troops. Meanwhile the national 
debt had increased frightfully, commerce dwindled 
away, the arts and sciences were neglected ; and, 
though the French troops were soon withdrawn, 
anarchy, misrule, and wretchedness pervaded the 
country from coast to coast. By the old law of 
Spain, the Salic law, no female could sit on the 
throne ; but Ferdinand, who used his power with 
an iron hand, set aside this law in favour of his 
daughter, Maria Isabella, who, after his death, in 
1833, was proclaimed Queen, under the regency 
of her mother, when a party more fanatical than 
Ferdinand arose in favour of Don Carlos, the 
king's brother, whom they wished to place on the 
throne. The kingdom was distracted by war be- 
tween the uncle and niece ; parties ran high, and 
much blood was shed. After a long and unnatu- 
ral conflict, Don Carlos was acknowledged King, 
but did not maintain peace, or produce union in 
his kingdom, which has ever since been a scene of 
continual discord and rebellion. After the death 
of Carlos, Isabella was again declared Queen ; but 
her subsequent conduct was so offensive, that she 
was obliged to abdicate in favour of her daughter, 
who, in 1847, married her cousin, Don Francisco 
d'Assis. At the same time, her sister, the In- 
fanta, married a son of Louis Philippe of France, 
the Duke de Montpensier. Neither of these 
unions have as yet been productive of happiness, 
either foreign or domestic; and at the present 
moment the political horizon of Spain is dark, 
cloudy, and tempestuous. 



144 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



PORTUGAL. 

The history of this country is so bound up in 
those of Germany, France, and Spain, that nothing 
need be said that has not been said of its events, 
until they recovered their independence under 
John Duke of Braganza, in 1668, after a war of 
twenty years. Under John a treaty of commerce 
was entered into between Great Britain and Por- 
tugal. This family continued to fill the throne, 
with various degrees of despotism, until 1760, 
when the Marquis de Pombal, a stanch and in- 
trepid reformer of undoubted talents, took the 
reins of government in hand, removed the Jesuits 
from the place of confessors to the royal family, 
and soon after banished them from the country, 
and confiscated their wealth. Maria Francisca 
Isabella, daughter of Joseph, married her uncle, 
Don Pedro, in 1760, and mounted the throne in 
1777 ; when Pombal was turned out of office, and 
many of his useful institutions fell with him ; and 
the country was again divided between a bigoted 
nobility and an ignorant clergy. In 1792 the 
queen fell into a state of melancholy, and her son, 
the Prince of Brazil, was appointed regent. Por- 
tugal was in constant war with France or Spain, 
or both, in which they were often assisted by 
Great Britain. During the wonderful career of 



EUEOPE. 145 

Bonaparte, Portugal, in common with other conti- 
nental countries, suffered from French invasion 
and rapine. The regent and his family, aided by 
England, took refuge in Brazil, and the British 
troops lent their powerful arms to wrest the 
country from their cruel and rapacious invaders ; 
and at the peace of Paris, in 1814, its independence 
was again restored by that friendly power to 
which the house of Braganza had more than once 
been indebted for its political existence. But 
Portugal proved, as heretofore, ungrateful, and 
even rose against the English at Oporto in 1820. 
This again introduced disorders that extended 
themselves to Brazil, where, to appease the people, 
through the Crown Prince, Don Pedro, the king 
promised them a different constitution. Directly 
after the king returned to Portugal, where he 
reigned badly amidst conspiracies and treasons 
until 1826, when he was succeeded by his second 
son, Don Miguel, although Pedro, as eldest son, 
was lawful heir, in whose behalf the Infanta, 
Maria da Gloria, took upon herself the command. 
Don Pedro gave the Portuguese a constitution 
modelled on the British, vesting the crown of Por- 
tugal in his daughter the Princess Maria da Gloria 
and her posterity. Soon after this he abdicated 
the throne in her favour, and married her to her 
uncle Don Miguel. To this the queen-mother 
opposed herself violently, and, secretly supported 
by Spain, was proclaimed regent. Don Miguel, 
however, arrived in Portugal with his young wife, 
H 



146 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

and caused himself to be proclaimed absolute and 
independent king under the title of Miguel I. 
This usurpation was resented by Pedro, who, 
resigning his kingdom of Brazil in favour of his 
infant son, returned to Portugal, and after a 
sanguinary war succeeded in expelling his brother 
from the throne, and placing his daughter on that 
bed of thorns. Maria Gloria is still the acknow- 
ledged sovereign ; but Portugal is and long has been 
in a state of disaffection, tumult, and distraction. 



ITALY. 

The most ancient history of Italy is veiled in 
mythological darkness. Upper Italy, Gallia, Cis- 
alpina, and Liguria, were peopled with various 
tribes of Gauls ; Middle Italy, by Etruscan and 
Latin tribes, the latter of whom extended into 
Lower Italy, or Graecia Magna, peopled by co- 
lonies of Greeks. Traditions of constant wars 
have been handed down from the mythological 
age; to these belong the wars in Latium: the 
arrival of Eneas and his Trojans — the kind recep- 
tion given him by the king of Latium, whose 
daughter Lavinia he married. Even the foun- 
dation of Rome, attributed to the twin-brothers 
Romulus and Remus, and the whole epoch of Ro- 
man kings, a period of 245 years, are veiled in 
clouds of mythology full of conflicting traditions 
and hopeless blanks. Rome from its very begin- 
ning, having been founded by colonists from Alba 



EUROPE. 147 

Longa, belonged to the league of Latin towns. 
The constitution of Rome was founded upon the 
distinction between Patricians and Plebeians upon 
a very ancient form of religious worship — the 
warlike spirit of the citizens, and the severity of 
the patricial power. Kings were only respected 
as they were able to maintain war against their 
neighbours. All attacks upon royalty, and even 
its final abolition, was the work of the patricians 
and senate. It was a constitution like this which 
exalted Rome to her high and palmy state, and 
finally won for a colony, which originally pos- 
sessed little more than a dozen square miles of ter- 
ritory, the dominion of all the then known world. 



NAPLES AND SICILY. 

Charlemagne united the Lombardian crown 
with the Frankish empire ; but the Normans 
who had entered the service of the Lombardian 
dukes of Benevento and Capua, succeeded in 
making themselves masters of all Lower Italy 
and Sicily. In 1130, Poger assumed the title 
of the Two Sicilies, and received the kingdom 
as a fief from the Pope Anaelet II. After 
their extinction the house of Hohenstaufen exer- 
cised the supreme power until 1282. The Pope 
gave it to Charles of Anjou, brother to the King 
of France. After the general massacre, called the 
Sicilian Yespers, it came into the possession of 
H 2 



148 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Peter of Arragon, and for two centuries remained 
a Spanish province, since which it has been sub- 
ject to Austria or Spain as either power prevailed. 
In 1759, Don Carlos gave the Two Sicilies to 
his third brother, Ferdinand, who on the com- 
mencement of the French revolution was led into 
a war with France. During the unrivalled suc- 
cesses of Bonaparte, Ferdinand fled to Sicily, and 
placed himself under the protection of the English, 
when Napoleon named his brother Joseph king 
of Naples ; but two years after, in 1808, called 
him from that to the throne of Spain, and placed 
Joachim Murat, his brother-in-law, on the throne 
of the Sicilies ; and had Murat acted with pru- 
dence he might probably have continued to reign 
over the south of Italy ; but his ambition to be- 
come sole king of Italy led him into a dispute 
with Austria and England, that soon expelled 
him from the throne, and finally brought him to 
the scaffold : both Naples and Sicily were restored 
to Ferdinand, who died in 1825, and was succeeded 
by his son, Francis I. 



SAVOY. 

Savoy was formed from the remnants of the 
ancient Burgundian dominions. The Counts of 
Savoy got possession of Turin, Asti, and Nice, 
and gradually enlarged their territories by mar- 
riage and inheritance. Amadeus was first created 



EUKOPE. 149 

Duke of Savoy in 1416, under the Emperor 
Sigismund. 

Milan was raised to a duchy under the influence 
of the Visconti family in 1395. 



FLORENCE. 

The powerful house of Medici flourished in 
Florence from the beginning of the fourteenth 
century. In 1530 Charles V. bestowed upon them 
the title of Dukes which had been borne by the 
house of Este, in Modena. The Medici have 
contributed more than any other family to the 
welfare and prosperity of Florence, and will ever 
be remembered with pride and gratitude by the 
Florentines. 



VENICE. 

The most powerful of the Italian states was 
the bold republic of Venice; an independent 
commercial aristocracy, at the head of which 
stood an elected Doge. Venice maintained her 
independence for 1300 years; but after various 
changes, was, with its territories, joined to the 
Lombardo Venetian kingdom in 1814. A kind 
of mock constitution was given to the Lombardian 
Venetian states in 1815 ; but they have no legis- 
lative power whatever, and the government is de 
H 3 



150 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

facto absolutely arbitrary. The representation 
consists of landed proprietors, tbe nobility, and 
citizens/ possessing a certain amount of income, 
but the emperor has a right to exclude whomso- 
ever he may think proper: he also imposes the 
taxes. The kingdom is divided into two govern- 
ments, Milan and Yenice, under a viceroy. The 
administration of justice is arbitrary in the extreme, 
and wretched beyond description, and the censor- 
ship cruelly rigid. Lombardy is without doubt one 
of the finest and most fertile spots on the face of 
the earth. The high enclosing mountains afford 
an abundance of water. The soil is extremely 
rich, and the irrigation perfect ; towns and vil- 
lages numerous, the population immense, and the 
skies cloudless ; but industry has and still does de- 
cline ; there is some tolerably animated commerce, 
but a bad government crushes the energies and 
destroys the hopeful spirit necessary to business 
and improvement. 



PAPAL DOMINIONS, OR STATES OF 
THE CHURCH. 

The States of the Church embrace the worldly 
dominions of the Pope, or " Stato della Chiesa." 
It is a connected country of Central Italy. Rome, 
the capital, according to ordinary accounts, was 
founded by Romulus, about 700 years B. c, and 
was governed by kings for 250 years. Ancus 
Martius, its fourth king, built a harbour and es- 



EUEOPE. 151 

tablished a colony at Ostia on the river Tiber : he 
also founded the navy of Rome. Tarquinius 
Priscus, his successor, greatly extended the power 
of Rome. Servius Tullus divided the people into 
classes, and imposed taxes on them. His suc- 
cessor, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was driven 
from Rome in 509 b. c, and the kingly dignity 
abolished. A republic was now created, and 
Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus were 
appointed consuls. Long wars with the Etrurians 
and Latins, during which a dictator was occa- 
sionally placed at the head of affairs, exhausted 
the resources of the common people, and reduced 
them to absolute dependance on the patricians. 
In 499 b. c. the laws of the twelve tables gathered 
from Greece and Southern Italy were promul- 
gated, and decemvirs appointed from the pa- 
tricians. This caused a new rebellion, and the 
people, after many struggles, obtained a political 
equality with the patricians. A consul was then 
elected from each. In 389, Rome, with the ex- 
ception of the capitol, was sacked by the Gauls 
under Brennus, who was afterwards defeated by 
Camillus. A long struggle with the Samnites, 
which lasted fifty years, terminated in favour of 
Rome, and left her the most powerful state in 
Italy. About this time the government assumed 
a democratic form, the legislative power being in 
the hands of the people. About 281 b. c. the 
Romans attacked the Tarentines, a people of Lower 
Italy, and for the first time were involved in war 
with a foreign power. The Tarentines invited 
H 4 



152 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to assist them, a man of 
courage, judgment and experience, who twice de- 
feated the Romans, but was himself totally over- 
thrown at Benevento in 275. The Romans having 
subdued Tarentum, directed their arms to Sicily, 
and this embroiled them with Carthage, producing 
a struggle which lasted twenty-five years. During 
this time Rome formed a navy by which she de- 
feated the Carthaginians several times. A peace 
was made on two occasions, but soon broken. 
Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, crossed the 
Alps, descended upon the north of Italy, and won 
the battle of Cannae ; but after fifteen years of 
struggle was obliged to evacuate Italy, lost the 
battle of Zama in Africa, and thus reduced, Car- 
thage was forced on a humiliating peace. By the 
conquest of Corinth, 146 B. c, the whole of Greece 
became a Roman province ; and in the same year 
the powerful republic of Carthage was annihilated, 
the city itself reduced to ashes, and the whole 
state annexed to the Roman empire under the 
name of the province of Africa. From this time 
internal divisions and struggles distracted the re- 
public. Sylla, Marius, and others, played con- 
spicuous parts at home, while Pompey and Caesar 
strove for the mastery in power and deceit. 
Caesar, as proconsul, made the entire subjugation of 
Gaul and overran part of Britain, and while thus 
engaged something like peace was restored to 
Rome; but on his return, civil dissensions again 
distracted the state, and led to those events in 
which Pompey and Caesar enacted scenes at which 



EUROPE. 153 

the world stood amazed, until the fate of Pompey 
was decided at the battle of Pharsalia, forty-eight 
years B. c. Caesar afterwards fell by the hands of 
conspirators in the Forum. During the long 
reign of Octavius, which was peaceable and pros- 
perous, the spirit of republicanism gradually de- 
clined. He accepted the title of Augustus, and 
carried the grandeur of the Roman empire to its 
greatest extent. It was during his reign that our 
Saviour Jesus Christ was born into the world. 
Augustus died A. d. 14, and was succeeded by his 
stepson Tiberius. From this time to the year 69, 
no less than eight emperors, all eminent for cruelty, 
extravagance, voluptuous indulgence, and every 
vice that degrades human nature, reigned over 
the now luxurious and effeminate state and people. 
Vespasian and his son Titus were exceptions. 
Their reigns were marked with justice, mildness, 
and moderation, if we except the taking and 
entire destruction of Jerusalem. They were suc- 
ceeded by four other emperors, more horrible, if 
possible, than the former. Trajan reigned from 
98 to 117. He was one of the best and wisest 
princes that ever filled a throne ; but probably the 
most happy period of Rome was the forty-two 
years in which Titus, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus 
Aurelius Antoninus reigned. From the close of 
this period we date the rapid decay of Rome. In 
193 the imperial dignity was sold by the guards, 
and bought by Didius Julianus. From that time 
military despotism, cruelty, and misrule were 
carried to their utmost heights, while the Goths 
H 5 



154 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

made great inroads into the empire, as did the 
Vandals and other northern nations. In 233 Con- 
stantine succeeded to the empire, embraced Chris- 
tianity, and transferred the seat of empire to the 
site of ancient Byzantium, building a new city called 
Constantinople. After the death of Theodosius it 
was divided between his two sons, Arcadius and 
Honorius, the former retaining the Eastern, and 
the latter receiving the Western empire. 

In 455, during the reign of Maximus, Genseric 
plundered Rome for fourteen days ; nine insignifi- 
cant emperors followed, until 476, when Odoacer, 
the chief of the Heruli, made himself master of 
Rome. He was afterwards conquered by Theodoric 
king of the Ostrogoths, and the Roman empire was 
entirely dissolved. The Ostrogoths spread them- 
selves over the whole of Italy, but their empire 
was disputed by the Greek Emperors. In the 
reign of Justinian, Narses drove out the Goths, 
made Central Italy a Greek province, and go- 
verned it for his imperial master till 567, when it 
was conquered by the Longobards, who held it 
until Pepin forced them to relinquish it to Ste- 
phen bishop of Rome, in 755. From this time it 
was governed by popes, good and bad, for several 
centuries. 

In 1265, the Pope called the House of Anjou 
to the throne of Naples, to oppose the power- 
ful house of Hohenstaufen ; but the boundless 
ambition and vicious lives of the popes created 
continual disturbance and internal dissensions, as 
well as petty wars with all the neighbouring 



EUROPE. 155 

states ; yet with all, their temporal and spiritual 
power continued to increase, until the middle of 
the sixteenth century, when, having reached its 
highest pitch, it began to decline gradually ; the 
descent was hastened by prodigalities and follies 
that produced new evils and civil dissensions. The 
victories of the French in Italy under Bonaparte 
forced the Pope to make many concessions. In 
1797 a pretext was afforded for taking the city 
by French troops, when Berthier founded a re- 
public with a consular constitution at Rome. 
Pius VI. was led a prisoner into France, where 
he died in 1799. Pius VII. by the assistance of 
the Austrians took possession of Borne, and as- 
sumed the papal power ; but in 1807 new disputes 
with France arose, several states were added to 
the French territories; a revenue of 2,000,000 
francs was assigned to the Pope, who was com- 
pelled to take up his residence in France, where 
he contrived to find amusements in such pursuits 
as a bigoted, besotted, weak-minded man w T as 
alone capable of enjoying : among them was em- 
broidering a petticoat for the Virgin Mary ; and 
when, by English and Austrian money and va- 
lour, the French were driven out of Italy, this 
imbecile man was, after the events of 1814, en- 
abled to resume possession of the states of the 
Church.* He did not, however, live long, and 



* The only redeeming act of his life was an attempt at draining 
the Pontine Marshes, and putting them into a state of cultiva- 
tion. In this attempt he spent a large sum of money ; but the 
air continues unwholesome, and nothing more has been done. 

H 6 



156 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

was succeeded by a miserable bigot, Leo XI., who 
re-established the Inquisition, stretched the au- 
thority of the Church to its utmost limits, and 
died in 1829, and was succeeded by Pius VIII., 
a man almost without character, not very cruel, 
but without any active virtues, content to be the 
head of the Church, perfect and infallible; he 
died in 1846, and was succeeded by a man of 
much more liberal mind, the commencement of 
whose pontificate holds out something like a hope 
for that beautiful but ill-governed country. 

Home, the ancient Roma, the capital of the 
states, and the residence of the Pope, though no 
longer mistress of the world, is still one of its finest 
and most remarkable cities, eighteen miles in cir- 
cumference, and so long as it preserves the Pan- 
theon, the church of St. Peter, the Colliseum, the 
Vatican, the Sistinian chapel, its magnificent pa- 
laces, filled with the treasures of ancient and mo- 
dern art, its Apollo, its population, and its statues, 
will remain the boast and wonder of Europe. Still 
Rome, like Babylon and Persepolis, presents one of 
the most striking lessons afforded by the pages of 
history of the instability of human grandeur, and 
the mutability of imperial power. To give a more 
extended sketch of her history is here impossible ; 
it would indeed be nothing short of giving a 
sketch of the world for 3000 years. She has been, 
to use the emphatic language of the Scriptures, 
" the hammer of the whole earth," " a destroying 
mountain which destroyed all the earth." — She 
who had arrayed herself in the spoils of a con- 



EUKOPE. 157 

quered world, and gathered into her treasuries the 
riches of the people, was ten times successively- 
taken, burnt, and sacked, by the congregated 
hordes of the East and the North, and the star of 
the eternal city has set in darkness. Yet the Italians 
are still a very fine race of men, neither so grave 
as the Spaniards, nor so volatile as the French, 
possessing in themselves every element requisite 
to form one of the finest nations in the world : it 
is entirely owing to the disgraceful misgovern- 
ment by which this lovely country has been op- 
pressed for so many generations, that they are so 
much behind others in political and moral rank. 
If we consider the state of civilisation in Italy, 
and the severity with which every means, religious 
and political, have been employed to put down all 
progressive improvement, the wonder will be that, 
under such an iron scourge of despotism, we do 
not find them sunk still deeper in the abyss of 
social degradation than they are. " Schiavi siam, 
si," says Alfieri ; " ma Schiavi agnor fermenti." We 
are slaves, but slaves who rage under the yoke. 



THE IONIAN REPUBLIC. 

The Ionian Eepublic consists of seven large 
islands, and a few smaller islands situated in the 
Ionian Sea. They were early celebrated in Grecian 
history, particularly in the Peloponnesian wars. 
The battle of Actium, which decided the destinies 
of the Roman empire, was fought between Santa 



158 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Maura and Corfu. In the thirteenth century the 
King of Naples got possession of Corfu : in the 
fourteenth the Venetians took these islands under 
their protection. Upon the dissolution of the 
republic of Venice in 1796, the Ionian islands fell 
into the hands of the French: in 1799 they were 
retaken by the combined fleets of Russia and 
Turkey, and Paul declared them an independent 
state, under the protection of the Ottoman Porte. 
In 1810 they were all, with the exception of 
Corfu, taken by a British squadron, and remained 
in the hands of the British until the peace of 
1815, when they were declared a free, single, and 
independent state, and placed under the protection 
of his Britannic Majesty and his successors. They 
have a right to regulate their own internal eco- 
nomy, subject to the approbation of Great Britain, 
for which purpose a Lord High Commissioner 
resides on the island. Her Britannic Majesty has 
the right of occupying all the fortresses and 
fortified places of the seven islands, and of main- 
taining garrisons in them. The military force of 
the islands is also under her orders. The geo- 
graphical position of these islands, combined with 
the possession of Malta, not only gives Great 
Britain the command of the Adriatic and a naval 
and commercial preponderance in the Mediter- 
ranean, but opens an easy communication with 
the states which comprised the once famed and 
glorious Greece. 



EUEOPE. 159 



TURKEY. 



Two thousand years before the Christian era 
Greece was inhabited by fierce and savage tribes — 
" Children of the Soil." About 1800 years B. c. 
Inachus and Ogyges conducted a colony of Egyp- 
tians into this country, and founded Argos and 
Sycion, whence they spread over the Peloponnesus. 
About this time, Cadmus, a Phoenician, settled in 
Boeotia. These two chiefs founded Athens and 
Thebes. A century after, Pelops, a Phrygian 
chief, settled at Argos, and his far-spreading de- 
scendants gave it the name of the Peloponnesus. 
These numerous small states naturally rivalled 
and grew jealous of each other ; hence came wars 
and fighting. The Trojan war probably took 
place 1200 years b. c. After the destruction of 
Troy, the dissensions of the dominant families and 
the quarrels of the Heraclides and Pelopidse be- 
came fruitful sources of internal wars. Draco, and 
after him Solon, framed a code of laws for Athens, 
six centuries before Christ. The colonists, how- 
ever, continued to extend their territories from 
the Black Sea along the shores of the Medi- 
terranean, Thrace, Asia Minor, Italy and Sicily, 
Sardinia and Corsica, Marseilles in Gaul, Sa- 
guntum in Spain, and Cyrene, on the African 
coast. Four hundred and ninety years B. c, Darius, 
King of Persia, found a pretext for attacking 
Greece, but his fleet was wrecked against the pro- 



160 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

montory of Athos, and Miltiades the Athenian 
defeated the army at Marathon. Nine years after, 
Xerxes, king of Persia, at the head of a countless 
multitude, crossed the Hellespont; but Greece 
was now saved by Themistocles, who annihilated 
the Persian army at Salamis. Leonidas at the 
pass of Thermopylae, and Mardonius on the plains 
of Plataea, taught them what Greeks could dare 
and sacrifice in the cause of liberty ; but the age 
was prodigal of great men, and Athens rose to the 
very summit of greatness and glory under the ad- 
ministration of Pericles, the successor of Aris- 
tides. Alcibiades commanded her armies ; Phidias 
decorated her temples with the undying beauties 
of his chisel; Sophocles and Aristophanes fur- 
nished her theatrical entertainments ; Thucydides 
recorded her glorious wars; Democritus, Empe- 
docles, Socrates, and a crowd of other distinguished 
philosophers, trained and enriched the intellect of 
her youth, and taught them virtue. 

Athens, already an object of envy to her rival, 
Sparta, drew upon herself the deadly resentment 
of that state by refusing to aid her in suppressing 
a revolt of the Messenian slaves, and thus involved 
herself in a twenty-seven years' war, that left her 
crippled and inglorious, under subjection to thirty 
tyrants nominated by her Spartan conqueror. The 
kingdom of Macedon originated in a Greek colony 
sent from Argos 813 years B.C. Its quarrels with 
Athens commenced under Perdiccas, 454 b. c. At 
this epoch Macedonia comprehended only Emathia, 
Mygdonia, and Pelagonia. 



EUROPE. 161 

When Philip mounted the Macedonian throne 
he found his kingdom in a highly distracted and 
weakened state ; but his policy, and the discovery 
of gold mines in Thrace, quickly brought about a 
change in affairs. Philip aimed at the protector- 
ship of Greece, and the Sacred War, as it was 
called, afforded him the means of attaining his 
object. He entered Thessaly as an ally, but left 
it only when declared a province of Macedonia. 
Sparta, Athens, Thracia, and Illyria, submitted to 
the power of this new state, which extended its 
frontiers to the Danube and the Adriatic. Philip 
obtained admission into the Amphictyonic Coun- 
cil, 346 b. c, where the orator Eschines laboured 
to obtain for him the title which the Amphictyons 
hesitated to bestow. The battle of Cheronea, in 
338, decided the fate of Greece, and made Philip 
its master. 

Notwithstanding the thunders of Demosthenes 
to arouse his countrymen, deaf to the eloquence 
of his oratory, they had not defended themselves 
against the designs of their conqueror. Philip 
was, however, cut off in the zenith of his glory 
by the dagger of the assassin, in 336 B.C., and 
was succeeded by his son Alexander, on whom 
a diet of the Grecian states conferred the title of 
generalissimo of their armies. 

The battle of the Granicus opened up Asia 
Minor to the victorious arms of Alexander. The 
defeat of the Persian king Darius in person on 
the Issus inspired him with the design of over- 
turning the Persian monarchy. The battle of 



162 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Arbela, 331 B.C., the result of which was chiefly 
attributable to the famous Macedonian phalanx, 
was followed by the taking of Babylon, Susa, and 
Persepolis, which placed the empire of that power- 
ful country, so long the terror of Greece, in the 
hands of the Macedonian hero ; who, having al- 
ready conquered Syria, Tyre, India, and Egypt, 
and having been declared a god at the temple of Ju- 
piter Ammon, now subdued several kingdoms be- 
yond the Caspian Sea, and then conducted his 
troops across the Indus and entered India, directing 
his course from the Jaxartes to the limits of India, 
conquering the northern provinces. Porus, king 
of one of these provinces, gave the Macedonian 
some trouble by defending his country with asto^* 
nishing intrepidity, such as commanded the respect 
of Alexander, who made the royal captive his 
counsellor and friend unto the day of his death. 
He next marched his troops toward the Ganges ; 
but a mutiny breaking out amongst his army ar- 
rested his progress. Embarking the greater part 
of his army on the Indus, to return by the Indian 
coast into the Persian Gulph, he passed through 
the deserts of Gedrosia and Carminia, and arrived 
by this route at Babylon, 326 B.C., intending to 
make this city his seat of government. But the 
conqueror of the world knew not how to conquer 
his own passions, and fell a victim to secret poison 
or gross excess in a fit of intemperance, 323 B.C., 
before he had completed his 33d year ; and with 
him this immense empire fell also. A few years 
after, and the Macedonian empire, with its meteor^ 



EUEOPE. 163 

like founders, Philip and Alexander, had passed 
away, serving only 

" To point a moral or adorn a tale." 

The troubles which followed the death of Alex- 
ander weakened the power of Greece. The battle 
of Ipsus, 301 B.C., gave Egypt, Palestine, and 
Arabia to Ptolemy, Macedonia and Greece to 
Cassander, Thrace and Bithynia to Lysimachus, 
and the rest of Asia to the Indus or Syria, to 
Seleucus. The weakness of the Macedonian 
rulers led to the formation of two distinct con- 
federations in Greece, — the ^Etolian and Achaian 
leagues : the former was little better than a league 
of robbers and pirates ; the latter embraced Co- 
rinth, Athens, Sicyon, and several smaller states. 
This league was planned by Aratus, and the 
talents of Philopemen supported its character, 
and gave efficiency to its measures, until it was 
overwhelmed by the power of Kome. The battle 
of Pydna, 168 B. c, put an end to the Mace- 
donian dynasty ; the taking of Corinth extin- 
guished the last sparks of Grecian freedom ; and, 
two years after, the whole country became a Bo- 
man province, under the name of Achaia. 

The history of Greece from this time is merged 
in that of Kome. The inhabitants of this beau- 
tiful country soon found they had exchanged 
masters for tyrants, under whose yoke they 
groaned bitterly, but in vain. During the five 
centuries that elapsed from Greece becoming a 
Roman province till the reign of Constantine, its 



164 UNIVERSAL HISTOEY. 

annals present but little political interest. Greece 
was, however, during this period, the theatre of 
events more big with importance to the destinies 
of the human race, than all the great and glorious 
achievements of the age of Pericles, events on 
which depended the salvation of countless myriads 
of immortal souls. The Apostles of Christ preached 
the everlasting Gospel of their Master. Christian 
churches were founded in almost every city of 
Greece. Grecian missionaries carried the Gospel 
of a crucified Jesus to the uttermost parts of the 
known world, and thousands of the sons and 
daughters of Greece won the martyr's unfading 
crown, by attesting with their blood the doctrines 
of the Cross. The conversion of Constantine 
rescued the Christians from persecution ; but his 
removing the seat of empire to Byzantium, and 
dividing it between his three sons, proved very 
disastrous, and exposed the country to the inva- 
sions of Asiatic hordes. Still, however unsettled 
the organisation and constitution of the eastern 
empire was, its dissolution was not effected until 
1453, when Mahomed II. took Constantinople by 
assault, almost 1000 years after that of the western 
had been destroyed. 

For the four following centuries the Greeks 
constantly struggled against, or under the iron 
rule of the Turks, a people whose name begins to 
appear in history about the middle of the sixth 
century, when this Scythian tribe settled at the 
foot of the Altai, in the steppes of Upper Asia, 
between Siberia and China. They were the fol- 



EUROPE. 165 

lowers of Mahomet, a pretended prophet, who was 
born at Mecca, in Arabia. He asserted that he 
was ordained to extend his religion by the sword, 
and he so far succeeded in his mission, that before 
his death he had conquered all Arabia, and dif- 
fused the spirit of his religion, which rapidly pro- 
pagated itself throughout Asia and Africa. The 
immediate successors of Mahomet, the Kaliffs, 
conquered Syria and Palestine. In 762, Bagdad, 
the seat of a new monarchy, was founded ; under 
their auspices the chiefs of this people gradually 
engrossed the power of every state into which 
they entered, and finally elevated themselves to 
the several thrones. In the ninth and tenth cen- 
turies the Turkish dynasties reigned in Palestine, 
Syria, and Egypt, from whence they passed over 
to Spain, and were afterwards known as Moors. 
In the 11th century they reigned in Persia and 
India, and founded a mighty empire in the east 
under the name of Saracens, with whom the Cru- 
saders contended for the possession of Palestine. 

In the 13th century the Mongols, a nation dif- 
fering in language and manners from the Tartar 
stem to which the Turks belonged, founded several 
states ; but the Turkomans drove them out, and 
divided Asia Minor among their warlike Emirs 
and their followers. One of these Emirs was 
Osman or Othman, who in 1299 took possession 
of the narrow passes of Olympus, conquered some 
of the provinces of Asia Minor, belonging to the 
Romans, assumed the title of Sultan, and on the 
ruins of the Arabs, Seldshucks, and Mongols, 



166 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

founded the empire of the Ottoman Turks in Asia. 
Between 1300 and 1500 the gallantry and acti- 
vity of ten great princes of this dynasty, aided by 
the heroic fanaticism with which Islamism inspires 
its devotees, raised the Ottoman state to the 
rank of the first military power in Europe. Soly- 
man I. entered Europe in 1355, and made himself 
master of the Straits which divide Europe from 
Asia. His successor Amurath established the 
seat of empire at Adrianople, and profiting by the 
feebleness of the. Greeks, expelled them from 
Thrace, and defeated the Bulgarians and Servians 
in a dreadful battle on the plains of Cossova. 

Bajazet, a prince of fierce and enterprising cha- 
racter, directed the whole force of his power 
against Constantinople, but was interrupted by a 
dreadful invasion of Timour the Tartar, which 
forced him to hurry into the Asiatic provinces to 
check the frightful progress of his new enemy. 
The two emperors met, and after a furious and 
sanguinary contest from daybreak to nightfall, the 
Sultan was taken prisoner, and the greater part of 
his army destroyed ; but Tamerlane was not suc- 
ceeded by such as could maintain his conquests ; 
the Turks soon recovered their loss, and had again 
leisure to attempt the destruction of the Greek 
empire. It was not till 1453 that this attempt 
was successful, when, after a violent assault of the 
Turks, a dreadful carnage of three days, during 
which the imperial city flowed with blood, the 
emperor and all his warriors were overwhelmed ; 
and thus terminated the existence of the western 



EUEOPE. 167 

empire, in the year of the Hegira 857 and 1123 
years after Constantine had removed the seat of 
empire to Byzantium, and given his name to that 
celebrated city, now the capital of the Turkish 
dominions ; but the Turks knew not what it was 
to enjoy peace for any long period ; they were 
often involved in wars with the growing powers 
of the Poles and Tartars, Russia and Austria, in 
which they sustained repeated and severe losses. 
In 1790 a conference was held at Reichenbach, 
when the ministers of Britain, Holland, Prussia, 
Austria, and Poland were present, and peace was 
established between the Austrians and the Turks ; 
but it was found impossible to reconcile Russia, 
and war with varied success continued until 1812, 
when the exhausted state of the Turks, and the 
critical state of Russia, just then invaded by the 
French, forced them to an accommodation, and 
the peace of Bucharest gave an accession of fron- 
tier to the Russians, extending from the Dniester 
to the Pruth, comprising Bessarabia and part of 
Moldavia. 

During the sitting of congress at Laybach, at 
the moment the Neapolitan states were invaded 
by an Austrian army, a revolt of the Greeks burst 
forth against their Turkish masters in Mpldavia, 
Wallachia, the Morea, and the Greek islands. In 
the beginning of the struggle the Greeks suffered 
severe defeats from the Turks. Prince Ypsilanti 
was obliged to take refuge in Austria, where by 
an act of atrocious despotism, he was arrested and 
sent to the fortress of Munkatsch. By the as- 



I 

168 UNIVERSAL HISTOEY. 



sistance of English loans to pay their troops, and 
English volunteers to fight their battles, the 
Greeks in 1821 took Tripolizza, the capital of the 
Morea, and two constitutions, the one published 
at Missolonghi, the other at Salona, were obtained 
for the eastern and western continents. On the 
1st of January, 1822, the political existence and 
independence of Greece was proclaimed. Still 
wars with the Turks continued, and in 1825 Ibra- 
him, son of the Viceroy of Egypt, took possession 
of Navarin. With this fierce and warlike chief 
the Greeks maintained a desolating and bloody 
struggle for the peninsula; they knew but one 
battle cry, "freedom or death;" and this they 
shouted as with daily diminishing numbers they 
rushed on their enemies. Their devoted heroism 
at last roused all Christian Europe to their aid : 
the fleets of England, Russia, and France, swept 
the Grecian seas of the Turkish fleet, and re- 
lieved the Morea of their ruthless invaders. In 
1829, the French and British announced their in- 
tention of maintaining the independence of the 
Greeks : when it was agreed that Greece should 
remain under the protection of the Porte ; that 
the Porte should formally acknowledge the in- 
dependence of the Greeks ; that the government 
should be hereditary in the family of a prince 
chosen by the three powers in concert with the 
Porte, but he is not to be a member of the reign- 
ing families of Russia, France, or Britain. In 
consequence of this arrangement, Otho, crown 
prince of Bavaria, was placed on the throne as 



EUROPE. 169 

king of Greece in January 1833 ; and under his 
administration the states have enjoyed the blessing 
of continued peace and freedom from the innova- 
tions of their tyranical neighbours. 



THE NETHERLANDS. 

This country was formerly a part of Gallia 
Belgica, and was called Belgium. It obtained the 
name of Netherlands, Pays Bas or Low Coun- 
tries, from its low situation, and the extreme flat- 
ness of its surface, especially in Flanders, where 
one may travel fifty miles without seeing even a 
hillock. The north part, or Holland, is so called 
from a German word hopl, English, hollow, and 
implying a concave or very low country. The 
first notice we have of the Netherlands is con- 
tained in Caesar's Narrative of the progress of the 
Roman arms in Gaul. About a century before 
the Christian era the marshy country between the 
Rhine and the Maese obtained the name of Ba- 
tavia (generous and brave). So highly were these 
people thought of by their conquerors, that for 
many years the body guard of the Roman em- 
perors were chosen from the Batavians ; but these 
people disappeared from history in the fifth 
century, the Belgaa or Belgians in the sixth : 
the monarchy of the Franks which rose on the 
.ruins of Gaul during the sixth and seventh cen- 
turies, embraced all the provinces of the Nether- 
lands, and planted the Christian faith there. By 



170 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

the peace of Verdun in 843, all the country east 
of the Rhine, together with Batavia and Friesland, 
were united to Germany. But as the states ad- 
vanced, they distinguished themselves by com- 
mercial activity, and industriously reclaiming new 
tracts of their land from the sea: thus they ob- 
tained power and self-confidence that enabled 
them to struggle against the military lords of the 
soil, which they did for upwards of two centuries. 
In the fifteenth century the whole country was in 
possession of the House of Burgundy, from which 
it passed to the Spanish branch of the House of 
Austria on the resignation of Maximillian in fa- 
vour of his son Philip the Fair, who, dying in 
1516, left these provinces to Charles V. The 
Netherlands had for some time enjoyed a sort of 
independence, though dependent on a foreign 
power, during which they had advanced in com- 
merce and civilisation; but Charles soon made 
them feel and submit to his absolute authority. 
In 1556 Charles abdicated the sovereignty of the 
Netherlands in favour of his son Philip, a bigoted 
Catholic, who thought the persecution of heretics 
his most important duty ; and soon made it evi- 
dent that, notwithstanding the stringent nature of 
his oaths, he disregarded the interests, feelings, 
and prosperity of his subjects in that quarter of 
his dominions. His sister, the Duchess of Parma, 
was appointed regent of the kingdom under the 
direction of Granvella, a furious bigot, who in- 
troduced a large number of licentious exacting 
troops, so that the Duchess soon found the dis- 



EUROPE. 171 

content of the people had arisen to an alarming 
height, under the Prince of Orange and Count 
Horn. The Duchess, finding they were too power- 
ful to be slighted, complied with some part of their 
requests, and dismissed Granvella ; but his suc- 
cessors were rather worse than better, and Philip 
was heard to declare, that he would rather be 
without subjects than be a ruler of heretics. It 
was by-and-by discovered that France and Spain 
were concerting measures for the total destruction 
of the Protestants ; and the fury of persecution 
continuing to increase, the Duchess resigned her 
regency, appointing the Duke of Alva her succes- 
sor, a man whose bigotry, pride and stubbornness, 
equalled those of his master. The severest punish- 
ments were inflicted on all who had supported 
the Prince of Orange : citadels were erected, 
and garrisons of foreign soldiers put into them, to 
force obedience from the people. 

The Duke of Alva soon perceived that the 
rigour he had used in enforcing his measures, 
instead of intimidating the people, had united 
them, and given them strength to oppose his 
severe and arbitrary decrees. He therefore sought 
to conciliate and attach them by promises, and 
some few concessions ; but, finding all his ef- 
forts tended but the more to estrange the people, 
he resigned his power, and returned to Spain to 
boast that in five years he had given 18,000 
heretics into the hands of the executioner, and to 
receive his well-merited reward, the hatred and 
detestation of all mankind, and of none more than 
I 2 



172 UNIVERSAL HISTOEY. 

of the master and king he had sought to serve, 
by sacrificing all honour and humanity, which, 
added to the pangs of conscience, and the re- 
proaches of that master whose servant he had 
really been, rendered the remainder of his life a 
period of bitter misery. 

So dreadful were the oppressions, and so violent 
the struggle for liberty for a long period, that the 
Netherlanders would willingly have put them- 
selves under the protection of any of the Pro- 
testant powers in Europe. An offer of the sove- 
reignty was made to Elizabeth of England, which 
she refused ; but granted them loans and soldiers. 
She also gave her support to the union of Utrecht 
in 1579, which laid the foundation of the Com- 
monwealth, known by the name of the United 
Provinces. Still it was not till 1648 that a treaty 
was concluded, by which the King of Spain re- 
nounced all claim to the sovereignty of the United 
Provinces. By prosecuting the arts of commerce 
and traffic with perseverance, the United Pro- 
vinces opened a communication with all the known 
world, and soon began to be ranked among the 
leading nations of Europe ; but a war with Eng- 
land, in which they involved themselves during 
the Protectorate of Cromwell, nearly ruined them. 
After the peace of 1654 they again flourished for 
a time ; but a heavy national debt burthened 
them, and their commerce disappeared, while that 
of England increased. The elevation of William 
III., Prince of Orange, to the English throne, 
served rather to involve them in difficulties with 



EUROPE. 173 

Great Britain than to relieve them ; so that ex- 
ternal wars and internal dissensions brought th 
once flourishing states to the very brink of ruin. 

In 1795, a new Batavian republic was formed 
under the protection of the French ; but in 1801 
the constitution was again changed by her ca- 
pricious rulers, and the Batavian republic saw her 
fleets ruined by the maritime power of the En- 
glish ; — ■ her colonies destroyed, her commerce 
annihilated, and the Bank of Amsterdam utterly 
ruined. The peace of Amiens cheered their 
prospects a little, by restoring some part of the lost 
colonies; but the new war between France and 
England destroyed the last hopes of this unhappy 
country, which fell under the widely-extended 
power of Napoleon; who, in 1806, placed his 
brother Louis on the throne as hereditary king of 
Holland. The misery of the country was ex- 
treme, their debt greatly increased, and their only 
-commerce smuggling with England. In 1810 
Louis abdicated in favour of his son. 

The victories of the allied armies, however, soon 
drove the French out of the country ; and in 
December, 1813, the Stadtholder William was 
recalled from England, and made his triumphant 
entry into Amsterdam, where he was received 
with every demonstration of joy. After the battle 
of Leipsic, at the Congress of Vienna, the Spanish 
or Catholic Netherlands, which had been subject 
to France for seventeen years, were given up and 
united to Holland, under the name of the king- 
dom of the United Netherlands, of which the 
i 3 



174 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

sovereignty was given to the Prince of Orange, 
who took the title of William I., King of the 
Netherlands, which he continued to hold until 
1831, when he abdicated in favour of his son, and 
the countries were again divided ; when, agreeably 
to the treaty of peace in 1814, Leopold of Saxe 
Coburgh was placed on the throne of Belgium, 
and John succeeded to that of Holland; and so 
divided, the countries are more likely to prosper 
than united, since the two nations have essentially 
different characters, languages, religions, and po- 
litics. The Belgians are bigoted in the extreme ; 
the. Dutch are not. The Belgians like all that is 
French, and hate the English ; the Dutch incline 
to the Germans, and have a strong English bias. 
The Belgians are rigid Roman Catholics ; the 
Dutch are Protestants, and among them is to be 
found almost every description of professing 
Christians. In one thing only are they alike ; — 
the active industry, that overcoming all difficul- 
ties, converts their low, marshy, sandy country 
into a cheerful garden, transforming fens and bogs 
into corn-fields and smiling meadows, and not 
permitting a weed to grow while it can be eradi- 
cated. The Flemish painters have only copied 
from nature when they represent their charming 
cottages embowered in groups of trees and thickets 
of surpassing beauty. 



EUROPE. 175 



ENGLAND AND WALES. 

The ancient name of Britain was Albion, the 
various etymologies of which are fanciful, and at 
best but conjectural. The first peopling of the 
island is buried in profound obscurity. Its earliest 
inhabitants are believed to have been Celtic. The 
southern Celts, the Gaels of history, are sup- 
posed to have passed from the Continent, and to 
have taken possession of the southern parts of 
Great Britain, 1000 years before the Christian 
era. To the Celts succeeded the Goths, who, 
under the name of Belgse, passed over into Eng- 
land. When Csesar first invaded Britain, he 
found it divided into tribes, of whose moral and 
intellectual character historians speak well ; but, 
as regards the arts of life, they were in the very 
rudest state possible. Clothed in untanned skins, 
with half-naked bodies dyed blue, and marked in 
fantastical figures, they had adopted the Gallic 
fashion of allowing the beard on the upper lip to 
grow to an enormous length, and had from them 
learned something of agriculture. Their food was 
milk and the flesh of herds ; their habitations very 
little superior to the kraels of the Hottentot. 
These were generally in the midst of a wood, and 
fortified by trunks and roots of trees, similar to 
the defences of the New Zealander. They ap- 
pear to have had some knowledge of the use of 
arms ; and a very formidable sort of war carriage, 
surrounded by short scythes that turned every 
I 4 



176 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

way. Their religion appears to have been a dark 
and tyrannical species of superstition, of which 
the Druids were the priests, as they were the 
judges of the people, dispensing rewards and 
punishments without the interference or sanc- 
tion of any higher tribunal. 

Such were the rude inhabitants of this isle, 
when, fifty- five years before Christ, Cassar effected 
a landing with his infantry on the coast near Deal, 
from which, even by his own account, he gained 
but little glory, and scanty laurels. One would 
think that Britain presented very little that could 
interest a man who grasped at the sovereignty of 
the Roman empire. It was not, however, until the 
reio;n of Asricola that the bold warlike islanders 
were entirely subdued. During his seven years' 
residence in England he built a wall, stretch- 
ing from the Clyde to the Forth. Adrian after- 
wards built another, between the Eden and the 
Tyne ; and, at a later period^ when Roman arms 
could no longer be spared to England, Severus 
built a wall parallel to that of Adrian, extending 
from the river Tyne on the east to Bowness on 
the Solway Frith on the west, eight feet in thick- 
ness and twelve feet in height, exclusive of the 
ramparts. This served to defend them against 
the attacks of the Northern Britons, when the 
Romans themselves, attacked on every side by 
hordes of demi-savages, were under the necessity 
of withdrawing their legions from England to 
assist them at home. 

The Britons were now free ; but the arts of 



EUROPE. 177 

civilisation and luxury had unfitted them to enjoy 
liberty, or contend against their northern foes, 
the Picts and Scots. Vainly they entreated the 
Romans to return : it was no longer in their 
power ; for the Huns were to them more terrific 
than the Picts and Scots to the islanders. Dis- 
appointed of aid from the Romans, they applied 
for assistance to the Saxons, a people inhabiting 
the Chersonesus Cimbrica, or the peninsula 
bounded by the Baltic Ocean on the north and 
east, the Elbe on the south, and the German 
Ocean on the west. The Saxons, a bold warlike 
people, readily accepted the invitation, and sent 
over 1600 men under Hengist and Horsa, who 
soon enabled them to chase the enemy. The 
Saxons, glad to exchange the bleak shores of the 
Baltic for the fertile, smiling pastures of England, 
brought over immense numbers of adventurers, 
and succeeded in making themselves masters of 
the island ; but their manners and doings partake 
more of fable than of history. Certain it is that 
they became its masters, and continued so, with 
some interruptions by the Danes, until the tenth 
century. 

The history of the Anglo-Saxons, while it 
continued divided into the independent kingdoms 
of the Heptarchy, is exceedingly obscure and con- 
fused. The whole consists of a succession of 
murders, plots, treasons, acts of violence and tyr 
ranny, and deeds of dark superstition. Every 
prince was at war with his neighbours, and every 
state in turn annexed to its more powerful rival ; 
i 5 



178 UNIVERSAL HISTOEY. 

until Egbert, by the exertion of a master mind, 
succeeded, in 827, in uniting in his own person 
what had been the seven kingdoms, under the 
name of England. From this time to 1017 the 
Saxon kings struggled against the warlike hardy 
Danes with various success, but certainly enjoyed 
very little peace in a country they had conquered, 
it is said, by stratagem. The Danes were op- 
posed and conquered by Harold, the son of a 
popular nobleman, who was again opposed by 
William of Normandy, who pretended that the 
crown had been left to him by Edward the Con- 
fessor ; and, in a battle fought at Hastings in 
Sussex, with obstinacy and intrepidity commensu- 
rate to the stake for which they contended, Harold 
and his two brothers fell, and gave the victory to 
William, in October, 1066. 

William, preferring to be considered a lawful 
king rather than a conqueror, was crowned by the 
Archbishop of York at Westminster Abbey ; and, 
for a time, seemed to govern impartially ; but, by 
degrees, he rilled every post of value or honour 
with Normans, and confiscated the estates of com- 
plaining or rebellious English nobles, bestowing 
them also on his followers ; thus forcing them to 
submission by acts of coercion and robbery, rather 
than winning their affections. The latter part of 
William's life was embittered by domestic broils ; 
his sons quarrelled among each other, and the 
eldest, Robert, proved the most troublesome of his 
enemies. The feudal law was introduced in this 
reign. 



EUROPE. 179 

William died in 1087, and was succeeded by 
his second son, William Rufus, or the Red. He 
was aided by the intrigues of Lanfranc, an eccle- 
siastic, in obtaining the crown, and maintained it 
with violence. He treated his subjects with un- 
common severity. Robert, the true heir, desirous 
of signalising himself among the Crusaders, mort- 
gaged his territories to William for 10,000 merks, 
a sum which he extorted from his subjects. William 
was accidentally killed in the New Forest, in 1100. 
A retributive Providence seems manifest here. 
The forest had been laid out by the conqueror, 
regardless of the rights of property or the sanc- 
tities of religion, and in it two of his sons met 
their deaths. 

Rufus was succeeded by his youngest brother, 
Henry, to the prejudice of Robert, who made 
some struggles to recover his dominions, but was 
found unfit for government, and yielded to Henry, 
who granted him a pension of 3000 marks, but 
afterwards thought this too much, and seized an 
opportunity of making him relinquish it. Robert 
could not satisfy even his Norman subjects, and 
Henry, taking advantage of their discontents, 
invaded Normandy, made it his own, and kept his 
brother a prisoner in Cardiff Castle for the re- 
mainder of his unfortunate life. Henry had one 
daughter, married to Frederic of Austria, and one 
promising son, whom he had taken to Normandy, 
to be acknowledged by his Norman subjects. On 
his return the vessel was wrecked, and the prince, 
with all on board, drowned. Henry died in 1135, 
I 6 



180 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

leaving his daughter Matilda heiress to the crowns 
of England and Normandy. 

Matilda ascended the throne, but her right was 
disputed by Stephen, who had married a daughter 
of William I. Stephen was not deficient in mi- 
litary skill or ardour, and many battles were 
fought between the two parties ; but the death of 
the Earl of Gloucester deprived Matilda of her 
last hope, and she left England; but just then 
Henry Plantagenet, her son by a second marriage, 
took up the cause, and soon reduced Stephen to 
terms of accommodation, from which he was 
released by death in 1154, and Henry succeeded 
him. 

Henry, on mounting the English throne, was 
the most powerful, and proved himself the most 
able sovereign in Europe. Beside his English 
and Norman dominions, he possessed in right of 
his father, Anjou, Lorraine, and Maine in France ; 
and in right of his wife, Guienne, Poitou, Saint- 
onge, Auvergne, Perigord, Angoumois, and Li- 
mosin. To these he soon annexed Brittany and 
the county of Nantz, thus becoming master of 
more than one-third of the French monarchy. At 
home his vigour and prudence restrained the 
clergy, and kept his turbulent barons at peace. 
Thomas a Becket, who had been raised to be 
primate of all England, an insolent, proud, and 
overbearing priest, gave him some trouble; the 
assassination of this audacious prelate, however, 
soon relieved him from the annoyance, but 
brought him into disgrace with the church. In 



EUROPE. 181 

the mean time Henry undertook the conquest of 
Ireland. He had received a grant from Pope 
Adrian, and pursued it so vigorously that in a 
few months he subdued the whole island to his 
own power. He also took William, king of 
Scotland, prisoner at Alnwick, and compelled him, 
his nobles, and his bishops to do homage to him as 
Lord of Scotland; but successful as he appears, 
his private life was embittered by family divisions. 
He died at Saumur in July, 1189, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Richard. 

Richard inherited all the bravery and warlike 
talent of his father, and all the romantic supersti- 
tion of the age. Fired with the prevalent frenzy 
of crusading, which then pervaded Europe, the lion- 
hearted monarch, disregarding any evils which 
might fall on his own dominions, joined the Cru- 
sade, and proceeded to the Holy Land, where his 
achievements are better fitted to the pages of 
romance which they have filled, than to the sober 
page of history. Returning home, he was taken 
prisoner by Leopold of Austria, and after some 
time redeemed by the payment of a large sum by 
his subjects ; but the restlessness of his disposition 
chased repose from his own bosom and from those 
of his people. He undertook an expedition to 
France, where he was shot with an arrow by one 
of the turbulent revengeful spirits with which he 
was surrounded, and died at Rouen in 1199. 

John, the younger brother of Richard, who had 
long sought to obtain the crown by sinister 
methods, now ascended the throne by succession, 



182 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

but soon convinced those who had advocated his 
claims how utterly unworthy he was of the dig- 
nity to which he had so eagerly aspired. His 
follies, his crimes, and his ill-concerted attacks 
upon his nobles, alienated from him the affections 
of his subjects. In this situation he undertook to 
wrest from the ecclesiastics many of their pri- 
vileges, but he had neither prudence to form a good 
plan, nor resolution to carry through a bad one, 
and his nobles formed the determination of com- 
pelling him to accede to such terms as they deemed 
necessary for securing their own interests. John, 
after a feeble, irresolute, and childish resistance, 
was obliged to yield, and at Eunnymede — yet 
held in reverence for the important event — signed 
"Magna Charta" or " Great Charter," the found- 
ation of British liberty. After this he raised a 
body of troops for the purpose of reducing his 
barons ; but they called in the aid of the king of 
France, and before the affair could be settled, 
John died in the eighteenth year of his reign. 

The Earl of Pembroke, who had been a firm ad- 
herent of John, got his son Henry, scarcely ten 
years of age, proclaimed king, and himself ap- 
pointed regent, and his abilities preserved tran- 
quillity; but when Henry took upon himself 
command, all tranquillity fled. The chief aim of 
Henry seemed to be to raise money, in order to 
waste it in a lavish expenditure on pleasures far 
from refined. The nobles had recourse to arms : 
a parliament was summoned for the. purpose of 
redressing grievances, which presents the first 



EUKOPE. 183 

rough outline of our present House of Commons. 
The charter of privileges was confirmed, and a 
committee appointed, under the powerful Earl of 
Leicester, for carrying on the business of the 
nation in the intervals of parliament. At last, 
Prince Edward overthrew the authority of the 
earl, who was killed in battle, and restored his 
father to the freedom and power of which he had 
long been deprived, and then himself joined a 
crusade to the Holy Land. Henry died soon 
after in 1272, and the fifty-seventh year of his age. 

Edward I., on his return, succeeded to the crown 
without opposition, and restored to the civil ad- 
ministration that authority and regularity which, 
during the weak reign of his father, had been 
nearly annihilated. Edward undertook and ac- 
complished the conquest of Wales, giving to his 
son the title of " Prince of Wales," which title has 
ever since been held by the eldest son of the king. 
The Welsh were the only remains of the ancient 
Britons, and had preserved among their mountain 
fastnesses the laws and customs of their ancestors, 
free from foreign admixture. They made a gallant 
resistance, but were overpowered, and obliged to 
submit to receive the laws of England. Edward 
attempted also to reduce Scotland to his sway, but 
did not fully succeed. He died at Carlisle in 1367, 
urging his son with his last breath to prosecute 
the war against Scotland, and never to desist 
until he had annexed that kingdom to his English 
dominions. 

The disposition and the capacity of Edward II. 



184 UNIVERSAL HISTOHY. 

were unlike those of his father. The war with 
Scotland was a series of failures, until the battle 
of Bannockburn ensured the independence of that 
kino-dom. The weak mind of Edward was inca- 
pable of regulating or controlling the lawless 
conduct of his own barons. Frequent quarrels led 
to civil wars, and his wife Isabella, a bold, in- 
triguing, inconstant woman, joined the discontents, 
and having, with her paramour Mortimer, fled to 
France, she returned and invaded England, the 
malcontents from all quarters flocking to her 
standard. Edward found himself obliged to submit ; 
he was deposed, cast into prison, and at last 
murdered under circumstances of the most bar- 
barous cruelty. 

On the young prince's accession, he evinced 
a disposition the very reverse of his father. 
Edward commenced his reign with vigorous mea- 
sures; seized Mortimer, and condemned him 
to death, and confined the queen in the castle of 
Risings, on a small pension. He next undertook 
the invasion of France, but returned unsuccessful. 
He, however, carried on at the same time very 
successful wars against France and Scotland. In 
the former country his son, usually called the 
Black Prince from the colour of his armour, 
gained the highest character for valour, prudence, 
and honour. The battles of Cressy and Poitiers 
ended in the most complete and glorious victories 
recorded in history ; but the Prince did not live 
to reap the reward of his valour. He died 1376, 
and his father in 1377. It was in this rei&;n that 



EUKOPE. 185 

the legislative proceedings were first given in 
English ; hitherto they had been given in French, 
often to the detriment of the people, " because 
they were impleaded, shown, and judged in the 
French language." 

Richard II., the son of the Black Prince, as- 
cended the throne of his grandfather when only 
eleven years of age. The administration of the 
government had been in a great measure en- 
trusted by Edward to his second son, the Duke 
of Lancaster, in his old age, and the Duke still 
continued to hold it. Eichard was wild and 
immoderate in his expenses. To meet them a 
poll-tax was imposed that gave great offence, 
and led to the celebrated insurrection of the po- 
pulace, headed by Wat Tyler. Eichard, after 
a career of folly, extravagance, and imbecility, 
was deposed by his own parliament, and the 
Duke of Lancaster raised to the throne by the 
title of Henry IV. in 1399. 

The manner in which Henry obtained the 
crown naturally rendered his reign very turbu- 
lent, and laid the foundation of the long and 
bloody contest between the Houses of York and 
Lancaster. Eebellions and insurrections were 
quelled by the vigour and promptitude of his 
measures. Still the kingdom was shaken to its 
very foundation. The most important rebel- 
lion during his reign was conducted by the Earl 
of Northumberland, who, by treaty with the 
Welsh and Scots, raised a formidable body of 
forces, which ill health obliged him to entrust 



186 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

to the command of his son, Harry Hotspur, 
who was slain in the conflict, and his troops 
routed so completely as to leave the rebels at the 
king's mercy. It was in this reign that the 
doctrines of Wickliffe, which led to the Re- 
formation, were preached, and considerably ac- 
celerated by the cruelty of the clergy, and the 
burning of heretics, with other measures taken 
in their short-sighted wisdom to extirpate opinions, 
and destroy a work planned by the Lord of 
Hosts, and directed by unerring wisdom. 

Henry V. succeeded his father in 1413. His 
early years had been dishonourably distinguished 
by riot and dissipation; but no sooner were the 
reins of government in his hands, than all the 
energies and activity of his mind and body were 
directed to honourable and useful pursuits. His old 
companions were provided for, and the laws admi- 
nistered with the strictest justice and regularity. 
Taking advantage of the disorders that reigned 
in France, Henry invaded that country with 
30,000 men in 1415. The celebrated victory of 
Agincourt enabled him to conclude a peace on 
terms which rendered the English king no less 
powerful in France than in England. Henry 
married Katherine, daughter of the French king, 
and it was agreed that should they have a son he 
should be heir to both kingdoms. The life and 
reign of Henry were short ; but very few monarchs 
have left such high claims to respect and admi- 
ration as Henry elicited by a reign of ten years : 
he died in 1422. 



EUROPE. 187 

During the reign of Henry VI. England was 
a sufferer by all the confusion and misery of a 
long minority. This was followed by the hor- 
rors of a civil war. Henry was a poor crea- 
ture, of a weakly body, and still more feeble 
mind, the tool and creature of those who, in- 
fluenced by venal or base motives, chose to take 
the trouble of guiding him. He was married to 
Margaret of Anjou, a woman of masculine mind, 
uncommon capacity, and great talents for go- 
vernment. Had Margaret reigned alone, or been 
the wife of a man whose talents commanded re- 
spect, she would have been a noble and shining 
character; but unfortunately united to a man 
whom she despised, she more frequently involved 
the kingdom in confusion than produced peace by 
her influence. During this reign the French 
began to recover the possessions they had pre- 
viously lost to the English ; the Maid of Orleans, 
having inspired her countrymen with some of her 
own enthusiasm, chased the terrified English from 
their dominions. But the civil commotions which 
followed were more injurious to England than the 
loss of France. Richard, Duke of York, advanced 
his claim to the throne occupied by the House of 
Lancaster, and two rival factions rent the nation 
in twain. In this contest the powerful mind of 
the queen was strongly contrasted with the imbe- 
cility of her husband. She repeatedly defeated 
the forces of the Duke of York in person, ob- 
tained the freedom of the king, and deserved a 
better fate than awaited her, after her unpre- 



188 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

cedented valour and devotion to the royal cause, 
and the death of her old enemy, the Duke of 
York. — Edward, son of the Duke, put himself at 
the head of the remnant of his father's army, 
pushed on to London, and in 1461 was proclaimed 
king. 

Edward IV. had now obtained the crown, 
but his possession of it was very insecure. The 
queen had still an army, and met the army of 
Edward in the open field, where the House of 
York gained a complete victory. Warwick, who 
had in fact placed Edward on the throne, offended 
by his marrying Elizabeth Woodville, soon taught 
him to fear his power, and after some struggles 
forced the king to fly, and replaced Henry on the 
throne, from which he had formerly driven him. 
Edward soon returned, and in a bloody battle 
Warwick was killed, and his army destroyed. 
Thus expired the last prop of the unhappy Mar- 
garet of Anjou. The imbecile Henry was con- 
fined in the Tower until his death. Margaret was 
ransomed by the king of France, in which country 
she lingered out her sad existence. Edward, un- 
opposed, indulged his evil passions in punishing 
former offenders, and all who excited his ready 
jealousy; he died in 1482, and was succeeded by 
his son. 

Edward V. was but thirteen years of age when 
his father died. The Regent, Gloucester, formed 
the design of mounting the throne. Deformed in 
body and mind, no sense of justice or honour im- 
peded his progress: having made himself master of 



EUROPE. 189 

the persons of the king and his brother, he confined 
them both in the Tower, under pretence of secu- 
rity. Lord Hastings and other noblemen, who 
were faithful to the princes, were put to death. 
The young king and his brother soon fell victims 
to the vile and base acts by which Gloucester suc- 
ceeded in usurping the throne, under the name of 
Richard III. His right to the crown was con- 
firmed by Parliament ; and to render it even more 
secure, he formed the resolution of poisoning his 
wife, Anne, daughter of the Earl of Warwick, and 
marrying Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV. 
The throne, however, gained by so many crimes, 
was destined to be held but a short time; his 
cousin, Henry Earl of Richmond, the last branch 
of the line of Lancaster, landed in Wales, and 
met Richard, with a large army, on Bosworth Eield, 
where Richard found a more honourable death than 
his vices deserved. 

Henry was proclaimed King on the field, and 
crowned in 1485, under the title of Henry VII., 
and the following year married Elizabeth, daugh- 
ter of Edward IV., thus ending the dynasty of 
the Plantagenets, and uniting the factions of 
York and Lancaster, which had for so many 
years filled the kingdom with discord and battle. 
The malcontents of the House of York were 
still numerous; even the birth of a son, uniting 
all the claims of both Houses, could not allay 
animosities. Henry's prepossessions against the 
Yorkists were inveterate, and his temper led 
him to terrify them into obedience by severity, 



190 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

rather than court them by kindness. Several im- 
postors, personating the young Duke of York, 
who, report said, had escaped his uncle's cruelty, 
contributed to perplex and disturb his reign ; he, 
however, succeeded in putting down all opposition, 
and establishing his authority. In political af- 
fairs he was the most useful king that had 
filled the English throne since Alfred; he pro- 
moted industry and commerce; and expended 
14,0007. in building one ship, called " The Great 
Harry," which may be considered as the founda- 
tion of the English navy. The Government, ere 
this, always hired or pressed vessels of merchants. 
Henry died in April, 1599. 

Henry VIII. ascended the throne at eighteen 
years of age, under very auspicious circumstances. 
He was prevailed upon, against his will, to marry 
Catherine, infanta of Spain, widow of his brother. 
Seduced by the artifices of the Pope and the King 
of Spain, Henry entered into league with them 
against France, which involved him in wars with 
France and Scotland alternately, until his treasures 
were quite exhausted. Wolsey, at once Archbishop 
of York, Bishop of Durham, a Cardinal, Pope's 
Legate, Lord Chancellor of England, Prime Mi- 
nister of State, and master of Henry's thoughts 
and affections, endangered both his own and his 
master's power by endeavouring to raise money. 
Henry, having seen and loved a younger woman, 
desired to divorce Catherine on pretence of con- 
scientious scruples; but the Pope was too closely 
allied to her family to yield ready assent. Wolsey 



EUROPE. 191 

was despatched to use his influence with the Pope, 
but was in the state of a man serving two masters, 
and offended both. Henry decided on acting for 
himself, and obliged the clergy to pronounce a 
divorce. He then married Anne Boleyn, but after- 
wards accused her of infidelity, and caused her to 
be executed. Jane Seymour, one of her maids of 
honour, succeeded her, who dying in child-birth, 
Henry married Anne of Cleves, but would not 
live with her. His next wife was Catherine 
Howard, niece to the Duke of Norfolk, who shared 
the fate of Anne Boleyn. His last wife was 
Catherine Parr, who proved a kind mother to his 
daughters, and survived him. It was during the 
vicious reign of this bad man, that the Reforma- 
tion took place in England. Henry, although he 
had written a book in defence of the Catholic 
faith, gladly seized on an occasion that offered him 
the means of possessing the wealth which had, 
for ages, accumulated in the churches and mo- 
nasteries. His caprice, however, in matters of 
faith, was as conspicuous as in marriage ; his 
great aim was wealth to lavish on his vices, and 
for this he overturned the institutions, and dis- 
persed the ecclesiastics without mercy. Henry- 
seems to have been a bad man, used as an in- 
strument by Providence, to bring about a great 
and glorious work, of which no honour nor merit 
is due to him. He died in 1547, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Edward VI. 

Edward was but nine years old when he suc- 
ceeded his father ; his short reign, or rather that 



192 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

of the Regent Earl of Hertfort, afterwards Duke 
of Somerset, was distinguished chiefly by the sup- 
port and encouragement given to the Reformers, 
and the consequent success of the Reformation, 
which made rapid advances under this pure- 
minded, amiable, and excellent young man, who 
was removed from the evil to come by consump- 
tion, in the eighteenth year of his age, when by 
the intrigues of Dudley, Duke of Northumber- 
land, his lovely daughter-in-law was raised to the 
throne for a few days only, an elevation which, 
under the cruel Mary, lost the lives of both Lady 
Jane and her husband, Lord Guildford Dudley, 
and taught the politic but mistaken Duke how 
short-sighted and fallible is human wisdom, and 
worldly ambition. 

Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., by Catherine 
of Arragon, was undoubtedly heir to the crown, 
and obtained it without difficulty. She was a 
furious bigot, hating everything opposed to the 
Roman faith, and found in Bishop Bonner a 
kindred spirit, ready to execute her cruel man- 
dates to the utmost letter. Hence all Edward's laws 
were abrogated, and the fires of Smithfield kept 
in a blaze with Protestant martyrs. 

Political motives induced Philip of Spain to 
marry Mary, but her subjects would not allow 
him any share of power, an affront he bitterly re- 
sented, and revenged on his wife, who appears to 
have weakly attached herself to a man who cared 
not for her or her interests. By his inattention 
Calais was lost to the English, which, added to 



EUROPE. 193 

other griefs and vexations, broke the hard heart 
of Mary, who died in 1558. 

Elizabeth, a daughter of Henry by Anne 
Boleyn, succeeded her sister Mary. Elizabeth 
was attached to the Protestant faith, and resolved 
to establish it in England, to which she found but 
little opposition, as Mary's persecutions had ren- 
dered the very name of the Catholic faith odious. 
Having concluded a peace with France, Elizabeth 
found work for her active vigorous mind nearer 
home. Pope Paul denied her legitimacy and right 
to the crown, claiming it for Mary Queen of 
Scots. To put it out of Mary's power to assert 
and press this dangerous claim, was a great point 
in Elizabeth's policy, and unhappily want of pru- 
dence in Mary, and the offence her gay continen- 
tal manners gave the formal puritanic Scots, but 
too effectually aided the artful purposes of Eliza- 
beth, who in the youth, beauty, and fascinations 
of her lovely cousin and rival, found cause for a 
deadly hatred, that led her to take advantage of 
the unhappy Mary's confidence, and keep her a 
close prisoner for eighteen years, and then, by as- 
serting a prerogative to which she had no right, 
bring her to the scaffold. 

Philip of Spain, actuated by bigotry and per- 
sonal animosity, determined to attack Elizabeth 
in her own dominions, and annihilate her and her 
heretical kingdom together, and for this purpose 
fitted out the largest and most powerful fleet 
Europe had yet seen, manned with good sailors 
and soldiers. But a higher power than Spain or 

K 



194 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

England overruled the destined Armada : what the 
navy of Elizabeth could not do, was done by the 
Lord of Hosts. The winds blew, and the devas- 
tating tempest finished the destruction begun by 
the English fleet. Elizabeth was particularly 
fortunate in her ministers, to whom she owed 
much of her glory, but inheriting her father's ca- 
pricious temperament, with the intolerant spirit of 
her sister, she was an uncertain friend, and a way- 
ward haughty mistress, vain, violent, and over- 
bearing:. Still her character was colossal as a 
queen. Lord Burleigh always spoke of her as 
" the wisest woman he ever knew." Worn out 
with care and the canker-tooth of a reproachful 
conscience, Elizabeth died in 1663, and was suc- 
ceeded by James VI. of Scotland, who, as grand- 
son of Henry VII. 's daughter, was nearest heir to 
the crown. 

"When James I. ascended the throne, the Ca- 
tholics looked for toleration from a prince born of 
a long line of Catholics, whose mother had been a 
martyr to their cause. The Presbyterians, on the 
other hand, expected much from a prince educated 
in Presbyterian principles. But James disap- 
pointed both parties, destroying alike their fears 
and their hopes. Dissimulation was a leading 
feature in his character, and unlimited power the 
first desire of his heart. Disappointed and angry, 
the Papists formed a plot for destroying the king, 
his family, and the whole parliament ; the conspi- 
racy was happily discovered, and the conspirators 
suffered as they merited. James, unfortunately, 



EUROPE. 195 

had high notions of the royal prerogative, without 
the power of maintaining it : hence his reign was 
a perpetual struggle between the crown preroga- 
tive and the rights of the people. He was extra- 
vagant and lavish in court and personal expenses, 
so that he was in constant money difficulties and 
disputes. To raise money he sold titles of nobi- 
lity, and first created baronets at 10,000/. each. 
James desired a union of the two countries, but 
national animosities and prejudices could not yet 
be overcome. His reign was inglorious, and he 
died generally despised, after having filled the 
throne twenty-two years. 

Charles I. succeeded his father, and to the same 
exalted notions of prerogative, united a stiff, per- 
verse, and sour temper, with harsh, reserved, and 
dogged manners ; unhappily he maintained a re- 
solute adherence to arbitrary maxims, and illegal 
methods of raising money, so that his government 
grew daily more unpopular, and his Commons at 
last refused to grant him supplies, unless they got 
redress of grievances. In this dilemma Charles 
pursued the most offensive and infatuated line of 
conduct, dissolving parliaments, imprisoning mem- 
bers, persecuting and prosecuting all who opposed 
him, forcing his own high church notions on all 
ranks and persuasions, and even permitted Arch- 
bishop Laud to involve him in an expensive and 
disastrous contest with the Scotch by forcing on 
them an episcopacy, against which they were de- 
termined. A great struggle for civil and religious 
freedom now took place. Hampden and Pym 
K 2 



196 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

headed the patriots; and Charles, having lost his 
only effective counsellor, when he basely forsook 
and afterwards murdered Strafford, found himself 
unable to contend against the public voice; he 
now endeavoured to ingratiate himself with the 
Scots by various means, but they were too pru- 
dent to involve themselves in war for a prince in 
whom they had lost all confidence ; they therefore 
delivered him up to the Parliamentary Commis- 
sioners, and under the growing power of Cromwell, 
who was now not only head of the army, but 
almost supreme in the kingdom, the unhappy 
Charles was tried by a self-appointed tribunal of 
barbarous fanatics, condemned and executed, in 
1648. A Commonwealth, for which the people 
loudly clamoured, was declared ; but the power of 
Cromwell in the nation was now supreme, he was 
declared Protector, and invested with the prero- 
gatives of a king. During his administration 
Cromwell maintained liberal views of civil and 
ecclesiastical polity, with vigour, decision, and 
promptitude of measures, which, with the terror of 
his fleets and armies, rendered him as much an 
object of respect and fear abroad as at home ; yet 
was his power pain, his grandeur misery, his con- 
fidence distrust, and his repose anxiety. An ob^ 
ject rather of compassion than envy, he died in 
1658. Different parties, growing weary of anarchy 
and its consequent confusion, now began to wish 
for the old Constitution, and their former race of 
monarchs. 



EUROPE. 197 

General Monk, a firm friend of the Stuarts, 
taking advantage of this reaction, soon succeeded 
in bringing back a son of Charles I., who, with 
the approbation of all ranks, was placed on the 
throne in 1660, under the title of Charles II. 
Unfortunately, no restraint was laid upon the au- 
thority of Charles II., who seems to have profited 
very little by the sad fate of his father ; he ap- 
peared to consider sovereignty only valuable as a 
means by which he might indulge his profligacy 
with impunity. Had the Commons granted all 
he required, it is probable the reckless good-nature 
of Charles would have led him to allow them to 
manage the affairs of the nation as they chose; 
but to the king's incessant demands for supplies 
the Commons answered with remonstrances as to 
his conduct. At this crisis the Duke of York, 
brother to the king and heir apparent to the 
crown, openly declared himself a Catholic, — than 
which nothing could be more offensive to the 
country. The Commons now refused Charles 
any further supplies, and he in a fit of anger dis- 
missed his Parliament, and directed the reins of 
government in the most arbitrary manner, and, in 
opposition to his people, and indeed to all Europe, 
supported the French king in his measures. The 
French king supplied Charles with money, and 
engaged him in a war against Holland, whose naval 
force was at that time very formidable. Charles 
brought his reign of folly, extravagance, and ar- 
bitrary measures to an end, by dying in 1684. 
K 3 



198 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

The Duke of York succeeded, in default of lawful 
issue, under the title of James II. ; and, as if to 
render himself more odious than his father and 
brother had done, exerted his power to the very 
verge of despotism, in the attempt to re-establish 
Popery in his dominions. The opposition he met 
should have convinced him that this was impracti- 
cable ; but opposition only exasperated his narrow 
mind, and rendered him even more obstinate, so 
that it was evident he preferred the ruin of the 
country to a failure in his mad designs. 

In this extremity, the eyes of the people turned 
on William Prince of Orange, nephew and son-in- 
law to James, who eagerly accepted an invitation 
to come over to England. James, deserted by his 
adherents when his power waned, fled to France, 
and soon after entered a monastery, taking upon 
himself the oaths of the order. William was re- 
ceived very joyfully, and after some debate was, 
with his wife, the princess Mary, raised to the 
throne as king and queen of England, and crowned 
William and Mary. The people, taught by ex- 
perience the necessity of defining the powers and 
privileges of both prince and people, now framed a 
bill of rights which fixed the English government 
in that happy state of freedom and moderation 
which has ever since characterised it. But though 
this revolution was brought about with apparent 
ease and unanimity, William was not quite popu- 
lar, nor James entirely without friends, parti- 
cularly among the Poman catholics of Ireland, 
where James appeared in person, and was soon at 



EUROPE. 199 

the head of an army ; but at the memorable battle 
of the Boyne his last hope expired, and William 
found himself firmly seated. James agaiu took 
refuge in France, and soon after entered a monas- 
tery, more gratified and happy in the title of saint, 
than he had ever been in that of king. William 
was involved in hostilities with the French till the 
battle of La Hogue made an impression on the 
French never to be forgotten. After a quiet, 
tranquil reign, William died in 1702, and was suc- 
ceeded by the Princess Anne of Denmark, the 
nearest protestant heir to the crown. 

Anne's administration was distinguished by vio- 
lent animosities among the existing factions, when 
the terms Whig and Tory expressed open and un- 
disguised hatred; and a war with France, in which 
the battles of Blenheim and Bamillies, under the 
command of the Duke of Marlborough, raised the 
reputation of English arms and valour to an un- 
precedented height of glory and renown. But the 
great event of this reign was the union of Scotland 
with England, a measure which has tended to in- 
crease the power, the importance, and the peace 
of both countries. After a reign of incessant al- 
tercation, Anne died in 1714, and with her ended 
the line of Stuarts, who had swayed the sceptre of 
England 112, and that of Scotland 343 years. 

George I., elector of Hanover, maternally de- 
scended from Elizabeth, daughter of James 1., 
succeeded Anne on the throne of Great Britain. 
Under this prince the Whigs regained that place in 
the national councils, of which they had been de- 
El 4 



200 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

prived in the former reign. George was too 
warmly attached to his paternal continental do- 
minions to deal even-handed justice on his new 
subjects, and in struggles between factions, often 
sacrificed the interests of Britain to those of Ha- 
nover. In 1715, the earl of Mar raised the 
standard of rebellion in Scotland, and publicly 
proclaimed the heir of the house of Stuart, the 
Chevalier St. George, king. Some other fiery 
spirits among the malcontent Scotch joined him ; 
but the duke of Argyle put their forces com- 
pletely to the rout, and the Chevalier, with Mar, 
Drummond, and a few others, escaped to the con- 
tinent. The Spaniards attempted to defend the 
cause of the Pretender by sea, but their fleet was 
dispersed by a storm off Cape Finisterre. George 
died at Osnaburg in June, 1727, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son George II., who with his crown 
inherited his father's partiality for his continental 
possessions : but the British monarchs had now 
learned, that to oppose the will of Parliament was 
to draw mischief, and even ruin, on themselves. 
George, therefore, retained his father's minister, 
Walpole, who is said to have been the first 
minister who used illegal means to secure elec- 
tions. Like every man in power, he had many 
enemies ; and this part of his conduct was eagerly 
seized on to disgrace the minister, who soon after 
resigned, and was created earl of Orford. 

The German territory was at this time a scene 
of warfare, and Hanover was in danger. George, 
to save his favourite dominions, was soon at the 



EUEOPE. 201 

head of an army ; found himself at Dettingen, and 
obtained a complete victory. Another effort was 
made in favour of the Pretender by his son Charles 
Edward, who crossed over to Scotland and pro- 
claimed his father king at Perth. Having gained 
a battle at Preston Pans, he marched into Eng- 
land, but finding himself disappointed in the as- 
sistance he had expected from the English Tories, 
retreated towards Scotland, and after several de 
feats, found himself obliged to hide in the wilds 
of Inverness, there, for a long time, scarcely dar- 
ing to beg the scanty food he eat, and with dif- 
ficulty effected his escape, with Cameron of Loch- 
iel and a few other followers, in a vessel hired for 
the purpose. This reign was constantly disturbed 
by wars and disputes with Scotland or France 
and India. The French provoked reprisals on the 
coast of America, by which they eventually lost 
the best part of their possessions in North 
America, and many of their West India Islands. 
A peace was at last concluded, on advanta- 
geous terms, though not to the satisfaction of the 
country. It was during this war that George II. 
died, in 1752. The alteration of the style, ac- 
cording to the Gregorian Calendar, and in unison 
with all Europe, took place, by merging the 
days between the third and the fourteenth of 
September. 

George III., grandson to George II. and eldest 
son of the late Duke of York, ascended the throne 
in 1760. He had been born in England, and 
gained general good will by declaring that he con- 
El 5 



202 UNIVEKSAL HISTORY. 

sidered himself an Englishman, possessed of aii 
English heart, and determined to support the re- 
ligion of his country, and administer her laws faith- 
fully. It was so long since the English had been 
governed by one of their own country, and they 
had suffered so much under the rule of foreigners, 
that they gladly hailed their half-English king, 
and gave to him the confidence and aifection of 
their warm hearts. George, on coming to the 
Crown, was well disposed to procure peace to his 
dominions ; but his ministry judged it prudent to 
continue hostilities until more advantageous terms 
could be obtained from the French. After this 
unsatisfactory conclusion of a war, which had 
been undertaken chiefly in defence of the colonies 
in America, when the ardour of defeat was over, 
and people began to think calmly on the great 
increase of taxes produced by the war, a general 
feeling arose that it was unfair the whole burden 
should fall on the English, and that the American 
colonists ought to help to pay some part of the in- 
terest on a debt incurred for their benefit. The co- 
lonists did not deny the justice of this, but claimed 
to be represented in Parliament, and thus only taxed 
by their own consent. Rational as this appears, it 
was not granted. The impolitic and unfortunate 
administration of Lord North, for twelve successive 
years, were deaf and blind to the complaints, re- 
monstrances, and representations of the colonists, 
as well as certain demonstrations of feeling in 
different parts of America, and persisted in levying 
port-clues, duties on imported goods, particularly 



EUROPE. 203 

tea, and other injudicious measures, until re- 
bellion broke out in America ; the colonists pro- 
claimed themselves independent of the mother- 
country, and war was declared : the excitement in 
England was terrible, and continued to manifest 
itself on various occasions, during the seven years' 
continuance of that calamitous war. A frightful 
scene of confusion and riot was exhibited, not only 
in London, but in many parts of England, during 
the summer of 1780, by the excited populace, on 
account of the Catholic Relief Bill, fermented by 
the madman-like conduct of Lord George Gordon. 
About this time the famous armed neutrality of 
the Empress of Russia aimed a severe blow at 
our continental connections, and the appearance of 
Hyder Ally threatened the safety of our posses- 
sions in India. All this news contributed to raise 
the feelings, and call forth the energies, of the 
English nation. At length the administration of 
Lord North and that of the Coalition Ministry 
came to an end, and Mr. Pitt, then only in his 
twenty-fourth year, was appointed first Lord of 
the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
and immediately concluded a peace between Great 
Britain and the colonies, acknowledging their in- 
dependence, under the name of the United States. 
Thus, after a ruinous warfare of seven years, 
the colonies were for ever lost to England. A 
treaty, offensive and defensive, was also signed 
with Prussia, in 1788. But England was not 
long permitted to enjoy peace. The situation of 
France soon became an object of engrossing and 
K 6 



204 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

overwhelming interest to all Europe. Britain 
was not among the least interested spectators of 
that political and moral revolution which now con- 
vulsed what has been called her hereditary foe. 
The writings of Burke, Paine, Mackintosh, and 
others inflamed the zeal of conflicting parties, in 
several instances, far beyond the bounds of mo- 
deration. 

On the execution of Louis, the French Ambas- 
sador was ordered to withdraw within six days. 
The English Ambassador had been previously re- 
called, and war was declared by the national con- 
vention of France against England and Holland 
early in 1793. Thus commenced a war, then con- 
sidered by the British cabinet a matter to be easily 
adjusted, that for twenty-five years deluged 
Europe with blood, overturned dynasties, de- 
throned kings, unseated popes, swept countries 
from modern maps, raised men of low degree not 
only to the first ranks in the senate, the army, 
and the navy, but to principalities and thrones, 
and gave to one individual the greatest extent of 
power and command the world ever saw united 
in the same person. 

The resources of France were stronger than 
had been calculated on, and after a few years of 
insane fury and slaughter at home, the course of 
her armies, under such men as Moreau, Kleber, 
Hoche, and Buonaparte, could only be met and 
arrested by the Nelsons, the Sydney Smiths, the 
Abercrombies, the Moores, and the Wellesleys 
of Great Britain, who, during the tremendous 



EUROPE. 205 

struggle with the Republic, the Consulate, and 
the Empire of France, and by them embroiled 
with other kingdoms, stood single-handed, not 
only against all Europe, but at one period against 
that and America also. The strength of Christian 
England, however, was in a praying people. The 
God of battles triumphed, and in 1815 a treaty of 
peace was finally concluded in Paris, of which the 
English were a second time in possession. After 
the British troops had driven the hitherto un- 
conquerable Buonaparte from the country, and 
restored the old Bourbon family to the throne, 
it was agreed, that in order to support them in 
their newly recovered dynasty, 150,000 troops 
should remain in Paris for five years, under the 
command of the Duke of Wellington; and Napo- 
leon, the " World Tyrant," finding it impossible 
to escape, surrendered himself to Captain Mait- 
land of the Bellerophon, expressing a hope that he 
should live in England for the remainder of his 
life. He was, however, not an English prisoner, 
but a prisoner of the allies; and it was determined 
to fix his future abode on the Island of St. Helena, 
where he lingered a few wretched years, and died 
a miserable object of blighted ambition. 

During the last ten years of the life of George 
III. he was deprived of sight and reason, and 
lived entirely at Windsor, under the watchful care 
and affectionate superintendence of his faithful 
wife and queen, until her death. The Prince of 
Wales, afterwards George IV., was appointed 
regent. It was during his regency that peace was 



206 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

concluded with France. The Algerines were sub- 
dued, and their cities laid in ashes, under Lord Ex- 
mouth, and prosperity everywhere crowned the 
British name in foreign undertakings. But at 
home disaffection and riots disturbed the kingdom, 
while the country suffered severely from great com- 
mercial distress, when a painful event added to the 
general gloom. — The only daughter of the regent, 
and heiress to his throne, had married Leopold of 
Saxe Coburg, — a union that, from the solid basis 
on which it was founded, promised a life of much 
felicity. But the all-wise Disposer of events saw 
fit to disappoint her people's hopes, by calling her 
from a state of earthly peace and glory, we trust* 
to one of eternal bliss and glory unspeakable, in 
the year 1817, scarcely two years after her ap-^ 
parently propitious marriage. As soon as the nation 
recovered a little from the stunning effects of this 
unexpected loss, the unmarried members of the 
royal family began to seek alliances ; — the Duke of 
Clarence, in 1818, married the Princess of Saxe 
Meningen, and the Duke of Kent the Princess 
of Lemingen. This year Charlotte, queen of 
George III., died, crowned with age and domestic 
virtues, and in 1820 the "good old king" was 
called from time into eternity. 

The first act of George. IV. showed he knew 
how to govern : all the officers of the Crown were 
retained, and he made a public declaration, that 
" it would ever be his desire to promote the hap- 
piness and welfare of his people, and maintain, 
unimpaired, the religion, laws, and liberties of this 



EUROPE. 207 

kingdom." The reign of this monarch was sig;- 
nally marked by commercial difficulties and specu- 
lations. Among the latter was the memorable 
joint-stock companies, which led to the ruin of 
many opulent families, who thus made haste to be 
rich. In 1824 a war broke out between the East 
India Company and the Burmese sovereign, which 
lasted about three years, but ended by the subju- 
gation of the Burman empire, and a vast increase 
of territory to the East India Company. In 
obedience to the voice of a certain part of the 
nation, a Bill was brought into and passed both 
Houses of Parliament for the emancipation of 
Roman Catholics, but was lost. It was, however, 
often renewed, and in 1829 it obtained the King's 
sanction, and, since that time Roman Catholics 
are allowed to sit in both Houses of Parliament, 
and fill the highest offices of state. George IV. 
died in 1830, and was succeeded by his brother, 

William IV., on whose accession all the ministers 
and great officers were reappointed to their places : 
but this was of short duration ; the necessity of 
Parliamentary reform, which had so long agitated 
the nation, was now brought forward with re- 
newed vigour; circumstances, both foreign and do- 
mestic, favoured the cause ; the changes in France 
inspired the English with new hopes ; Lord John 
Russell framed a Bill, a change of Ministry took 
place, and a House of Commons, fashioned ac- 
cording to their own mind, followed. The suc- 
cess of the measure now seemed certain. It was, 
however, lost this session, and dreadful outrages 



208 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

throughout England was the consequence ; and 
not only in England, but in Scotland and Ire- 
land, was the same determination manifested. In 
the midst of this distraction, the Almighty per- 
mitted the destroying angel to pass over the 
country in the form of pure Asiatic cholera mor- 
bus, which proved fatal to thousands, one out of 
every three attacked by it falling a victim to that 
which must be regarded as a punishment on a 
guilty nation. 

In the summer of 1832 the long-desired mea- 
sure of a Reform Bill was triumphantly carried ; 
and thus the greatest change that had taken 
place in the British constitution since the Re- 
volution of 1688 was brought about, and the 
storm, which had long rocked the country, was 
hushed to peace. The first Reform Parliament 
met in February, 1833, and their first business 
was to break asunder and shake off entirely the 
shackles of slavery from the West India slave 
population. A remuneration was granted to the 
slave-holders, and thus the dark stain of slavery 
was washed out of the British annals. 

Ireland was at this time in a deplorable con- 
dition ; famine, disease, and crime devastated the 
country; all these were in a great measure the 
children of that dreadful agitation, so recklessly 
kept alive by the pretended friends, but real ene- 
mies, of that ill-fated country, which has been for 
a long series of years, and still continues to be, 
the greatest difficulty which the British ministry 
has to encounter. During the session of 1835 



EUROPE. 209 

the famous bills for the reformation of Corpora- 
tions, the Poor Laws, the Registration and Mar- 
riage Bills, were all passed, by which dissenters 
were allowed to celebrate marriages in their 
chapels, agreeably to their own forms and cere- 
monies, with many other privileges. William IV. 
died after a short illness, in June 1837, in the 
seventy-third year of his age, and tenth of his 
reign, universally loved and respected; and was 
succeeded by Alexandrina Victoria, only child of 
the late Duke of Kent, then in her eighteenth 
year. 

As Queen Victoria I., her accession to the 
throne was hailed with more than ordinary enthu- 
siasm : all ranks and all parties in the state and 
kingdom, vied with each other in manifesting 
their affectionate allegiance to their youthful and 
interesting sovereign. In November the city of 
London distinguished itself by giving the Queen 
a most magnificent banquet, and nothing could 
exceed the glad enthusiasm that prevailed as she 
passed through the brilliantly illuminated streets, 
or the splendour of the whole event. The follow- 
ing year was rendered remarkable by a turbulent 
spirit which broke out among the lower classes, 
who now formed themselves into a regular but 
badly organized body, under the name of Chart- 
ists. Government found it necessary to take up 
the matter, and by vigorous measures they have 
been kept down, though not disbanded. In Feb- 
ruary 1840, her Majesty was united in marriage 
to her cousin Albert, Prince of Saxe Coburg and 



210 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

Gotha, a marriage which has been productive of 
much mutual domestic happiness, and every way 
conducive to the welfare of the nation, and in 
none more than in presenting a bright example of 
conjugal and parental felicity, combined with the 
performance of every relative and national duty. 
About this time, disputes respecting the contra- 
band traffic in opium, carried on in the East In- 
dies, brought on collisions between the Chinese, 
authorities and the British subjects at Canton, 
which led to hostilities, that, though quelled for a 
time, broke out again with renewed animosity, and 
led to a war with China, which was, however, con- 
cluded on terms very advantageous to Great Bri- 
tain. Great exertions, have been made, and are 
now making, for the christianizing of the Chinese 
people. Missionaries have been sent out by the 
Church and by the Methodists; churches and 
chapels have been built, the Bible has been exten- 
sively circulated, the gospel preached, and its doc- 
trines promulgated widely, with a fair prospect of 
bringing thousands, and happily the whole large 
population of China, experimentally acquainted 
with the way of salvation, through the atoning 
blood of a crucified Redeemer. 

The British arms were also very successful in a 
war with the Affghans in the East Indies ; but 
it was a bloody, unchristian war, and deeds were 
committed at which humanity instinctively shud- 
ders. It is true the Affghans were barbarous, 
fierce, and cruel in disposition, but their oppo- 
nents were professedly Christians, and should 



EUROPE. 211 

have remembered, that, "Vengeance is mine; and 
I will repay it, saith the Lord." In the following 
year, the Ameers of Scinde provoked the British 
troops to warfare, under Sir Charles Napier ; the 
result of which was, that the six Ameers, who go- 
verned that country with a rod of iron, were cap- 
tured, and the whole of Scinde annexed to the Bri- 
tish dominions, and Sir Charles Napier appointed 
Governor ; since which he has been employed in a 
terrible contest with the Sikhs, in which the Bri- 
tish army was again successful. Several impor- 
tant Acts have been passed, tending to ameliorate 
or remove the cause of discontent, and bring into 
force such measures as shall give freedom and peace 
to every part of the British dominions ; among 
these was the repeal of the corn-laws, so long 
clamoured for in vain. This was perhaps facili- 
tated by a failure of the potato crop, by which 
Ireland in particular was threatened by famine, 
and the wisdom of this measure appears to have 
been manifested in the ensuing autumn and win- 
ter. The potato crop having failed a second year, 
sickness and famine made dreadful ravages in 
many parts of Great Britain; but in Ireland, 
where the chief means of subsistence is the potato, 
famine and fever raged in all their horrors, sweep- 
ing away thousands. The Government and the 
people of England, forgetful of their domestic 
evils, willingly and liberally stretched out the 
hand of brotherly and Christian kindness, without 
which the whole nation must have perished. A 
day of general fasting and humiliation was ap- 



212 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

pointed, and the Lord heard and answered prayer. 
A fine summer and abundant harvest followed, and 
the song of praise and thanksgiving resounded 
through the country. Would we could say, peace 
and joy were diffused over Ireland ; but nothing 
done or said by the English can produce satisfac- 
tion, to say nothing of gratitude. It boots not 
that in every city, town, and village, active exer- 
tions and domestic privations are being daily made 
to procure the means of aiding our Irish brethren. 
The old animosity of the Celt against the Saxon 
remains, and is but too frequently exhibited in 
awful, frightful scenes of rapine, murder, and 
bloodshed. Great commercial distress has marked 
the year 1847, and failures to an enormous amount 
have reduced many wealthy families to poverty. 
Yet is England a favoured nation above all others, 
and ready above all others to aid, assist, and shel- 
ter the distressed of all countries, and is at this 
moment opening her arms to receive and comfort 
the exiled Louis Philippe of France, with his 
children and grandchildren, driven by a fickle, rest- 
less nation and people (who have just declared them- 
selves a republic), to seek safety and protection 
from hereditary foes. Surely we are a people, a 
church, and a nation, blessed of the Lord, and 
great in the might of Israel's God. 



SCOTLAND. 

The Scots, like every nation whose origin is 
uncertain, claim a very high degree of antiquity ; 



EUROPE. 213 

but the first part of their authentic history is their 
invasion by the Romans under Agricola, in or 
about the year 72. The Romans found the Scots 
in a state of barbarity, and, having driven them 
into the shelter of their inaccessible mountains, 
rather than subdued them, erected a chain of forts 
which protected the frontiers of the Roman pro- 
vinces in England. In the time of Adrian the 
frontiers extended from Tynemouth on the east, 
to Carlisle on the west. These fortifications and 
ramparts were frequently broken down and re- 
built, as their incursions into England and the 
defence offered rendered necessary. Before the 
Romans withdrew from England, we find them 
building a stone wall across the north of the 
island, to protect the islanders from those savages 
the Picts and Scots, two rival nations who pos- 
sessed the country we call Scotland. The Picts 
were afterwards vanquished by Kenneth, who in 
845, united the two kingdoms under the name 
by which it is now known ; but for a long while 
nothing interesting offers in its history, unless it 
may be the piratical incursions of the Danes. In 
1056, Malcolm, having avenged himself on the 
murderer of his father, Macbeth, found himself 
involved in a war with William of Normandy, 
who, after coming to England, marched against 
Malcolm, and forced him to do homage for his 
territory. 

After the death of William, Malcolm made a 
struggle to recover his kingdom — a struggle 



214 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

which continued with Donald Bane, Duncan and 
Edgar, until 1124. David, who succeeded, was a 
weak prince in body and in mind. He was suc- 
ceeded by his brother William, who recovered 
from Henry II. of England the earldom of Nor- 
thumberland, but wanting caution was taken pri- 
soner, and detained in captivity until he con- 
sented to declare himself a vassal to England, and 
do homage for his whole kingdom. Richard, how- 
ever, remitted these terms, and declared Scotland 
an independent kingdom partly for the payment 
of 10,000 marks, and partly hoping to make 
friends of the Scots, while he went on the crusade 
into Palestine. William continued a faithful ally 
to England until his death, but his son and suc- 
cessor, Alexander II., took part with the English 
barons in their contentions with John. His son, 
Alexander III., was betrothed to the daughter of 
Henry III. When he proceeded to England to 
claim his bride, her father thought it a good op- 
portunity for demanding a renewal of vassalage ; 
but the firmness of Alexander induced him to 
give up his absurd pretensions, and Alexander 
succeeded in adding to his dominions several 
neighbouring islands, the Orkneys and Shetlands 
in particular. He was killed while hunting at 
Kinghorn in 1285. The English throne was at 
this time filled by Edward I., who had long wished 
to add Scotland to his dominions. Alexander, 
before his death, had given his daughter Margaret 
in marriage to the king of Norway, and the Scots 
declared that the posterity of Margaret should be 



EUROPE. 215 

accounted lawful heirs to the throne. Margaret 
died, leaving one child, Margaret, usually called 
" The Maiden of Norway." Edward, hoping to 
unite the kingdoms peaceably, sought "the Maiden " 
in marriage for his son the Prince of Wales ; but 
this union was prevented by the death of the 
Princess in 1270. 

The line of Alexander being thus extinguished, 
many claimants, each supported by specious pre- 
tensions, appeared. Among them were John Ba- 
liol and David Bruce, both descendants from 
David I. through their grandfather, David, Earl 
of Huntingdon, who was grandson to David I. 
The imperfect law of succession could not decide 
between claims which both were determined to 
maintain. Civil war was therefore threatened, 
when Edward offered his judgment in the deci- 
sion. Anxious to avoid the horrors of war, this 
offer w r as eagerly accepted. Edward demanded 
that all the strong places should be put in his pos- 
session, that he might be able to enforce his de- 
cision. This was granted, and Edward thus 
supported, affected to consider Scotland as a fief 
of the English crown, and as such, subject to the 
King of England as superior. Of the claimants 
he decided Baliol to have the best right. He was 
therefore clothed in the pageantry of royalty, but 
constantly made to feel his inferiority by being 
summoned to London on the most frivolous pre- 
tences, and treated with insult and contumely, 
which unable to bear, he retired in indignation to 
his own country, and Edward proceeded to gain 



21fr UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

by conquest what he had failed in securing by 
cunning. 

Among the heroes who defended the liberty 
of their country was Sir William Wallace, a man 
of good birth, undaunted valour, immense sta- 
ture, unequalled strength, insensible to fatigue 
or hunger, and full of genuine patriotism. His 
spirit revived the dying embers of freedom: a 
large number of forces collected around him, and 
for a time victory followed their footsteps. At 
Stirling and all the way into England, and through 
the northern counties they conquered all before 
them, and Wallace was declared regent of Scot- 
land ; but victory, as if affrighted at this, then de- 
serted him. Edward, who had been engaged with 
war in France, returned, placed himself at the 
head of his army, and soon made himself master 
of the kingdom; while Wallace the noble champion 
of his country's rights, after encountering unheard 
of difficulties and dangers, was by the treachery of 
his friend, Sir John Monteith, betrayed into the 
hands of Edward, carried to London, and in- 
humanly executed as a public traitor. 

Robert de Bruce, grandson of the Bruce who 
had disputed the crown, now made a strong effort 
to place himself on the throne, which after much 
trouble and fighting he effected by a decisive battle 
at Bannockburn, near Stirling, in 1314, against 
Edward II. 

On the death of Robert Bruce, 1328, his son, 
David II. was proclaimed king, but had to contend 
with Baliol. In a war between England and 



EUROPE. 217 

Scotland he was taken prisoner, and detained in 
captivity eleven years, when he was liberated on 
paying 100,000 marks, after which he returned to 
Scotland, and shortly after died in 1371. 

David was succeeded by his nephew, Robert II., 
the first of the family of Stuart who sat on the 
throne of Scotland. In his reign was fought the 
battle of Otterburn, on which the ballad of Chevy 
Chace is founded. He died in 1399, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son John, also called Robert. 
Scotland was now at peace with England, but 
rent to pieces by the feuds of its own barons, 
among whom were the famous Earl Percy, and 
Duke of Albany. Robert sent his son James to 
France for education and safety ; but in passing 
through England he was taken prisoner, which so 
affected his father that he died of grief, and the 
Duke of Albany was appointed regent. The 
young prince was detained a prisoner nineteen 
years, during which time he was most carefully 
educated. On his return he endeavoured to 
correct those abuses which the feudal system in 
its rudest form had introduced ; but this was dis- 
pleasing to his ferocious barons, to whom he soon 
became odious. He was assassinated while at 
supper in a convent near Perth, in 1437. 

His son, James II., was but seven years old at his 
father's death, A long and feeble regency occa- 
sioned many miseries ; but James, on assuming the 
reins of government, gave promise of great pru- 
dence and wisdom, promise which raised the hopes of 
his people, only to disappoint them. He was killed 
L 



218 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

by the accidental bursting of a cannon, at the 
siege of Roxburgh. His son, James III., was 
then scarcely seven years of age, and again the 
country groaned under the miseries of an ag- 
gressive regency, from which the manhood of 
James did not relieve them. Of a poor, mean 
disposition, and contemptible abilities, he chose 
his associates from among men of low birth, and 
vulgar, coarse habits ; hated the nobility, and was 
in turn despised by them. In an insurrection, 
amounting to open rebellion, James led his forces 
to an engagement near Stirling, but, like a coward 
as he was, at the first onset was thrown from his 
horse, and being carried into the house of a miller, 
was stabbed by a person who visited him under the 
guise of a priest. James IV. was crowned while 
a minor, but his reign seems to have been more 
free from disaster, and, on the whole, more quiet 
and prosperous than that of any of his predeces- 
sors. He married the daughter of Henry VII., 
and thus laid the foundation of a union between 
the two kingdoms. Yet he was induced to espouse 
the French interest against the English, and fell 
in the battle of Flodden Field, in 1513. The 
death of James once more imposed a long mino- 
rity, more turbulent, if possible, than any that 
had gone before it, notwithstanding the influence 
of the queen-mother to prevent hostilities with 
England. 

James V. inherited the strong attachment of 
his family for France, which induced him to marry 
the daughter of a French king. This princess 



EUEOPE. 219 

did not long survive, and James soon after mar- 
ried the intriguing Mary of Guise. James, 
in many respects, saw and pursued the welfare 
of his country, but his connexion with and at- 
tachment to the French, gave him a distaste for 
his own nobility, and estranged them from him, 
besides embroiling him with the English. Had 
James been a patriot, he might have been useful, 
valuable, and beloved; but, wanting patriotism, 
he failed in all his undertakings, and died of grief 
a few days after his disgraceful defeat at Solway 
in 1542. 

Mary of Guise, the queen-mother, had the art 
to get herself appointed regent, and though de- 
testing the progress the Reformation w^as then 
making under Elizabeth, contrived to hide her 
malice, and to live on tolerable terms with her 
nobility. The young and beautiful Mary, only a 
few hours old when her father died, was early 
sent to France, to be educated, and, under the 
influence of her relatives, the Guises, was mar- 
ried to the eldest son of the King of France, 
who ascended the throne under the name of Francis 
II., but did not live long enough to enjoy the 
power he inherited. 

After the death of Francis, Mary returned to 
the land of her birth, and ascended the throne 
of her ancestors ; but, alas ! she did not bring 
with her the mind, manners, nor habits suited 
to her native land, nor the prudence and steadi- 
ness that might have saved her from the faults 
and misfortunes of her ancestors. Hoping to 
L 2 



220 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

render her more thoughtful, the people urged 
her to marry ; and consulting her taste and fancy 
rather than the policy that would conduce to the 
good of her country, Mary married Lord Darnley, 
a man of fine person and agreeable fascinating 
manners, but a foolish, headstrong, brutal cha- 
racter. His coarseness, neglect, and ill con- 
duct soon turned the warm love of Mary into 
bitter hatred. Her chief pleasure seemed to be 
in the company of an Italian siuger, called David 
Rizzio. 

Surrounded as she was by the cold, formal, pu- 
ritanic Scots, the imprudence of Mary found but 
little excuse or lenity. Still, with the infatuation 
of her race, she persevered in seeking her own gra- 
tification, until Darnley caused Itizzio to be cruelly 
murdered, almost before her face ; when Mary's 
warm heart suddenly grew hard, and thirsted for 
revenge. Meanwhile Bothwell, a man of un- 
bounded ambition, contrived to gain the favour of 
Mary by various services. Influenced by these, 
and urged by resentment to revenge the murder of 
her favourite, she did not prevent — to say no 
more — that of her husband; and, to give the 
finishing stroke to her crimes, married Bothwell, 
who was well known to have been a principal in, 
if not the perpetrator of, Darnley 's untimely end. 
She was made a state prisoner, and condemned 
by all ranks ; notwithstanding which she effected 
her escape, and threw herself on the protection of 
Elizabeth of England, who but too eagerly seized 
the opportunity of crushing one whom she con- 



EUEOPE. 221 

sidered a rival, and hated for her beauty and fas- 
cinations. 

After a cruel imprisonment of nineteen years, 
the unfortunate Scottish queen ended her life and 
her suffering on the scaffold, leaving an indelible 
stain on the name of her proud, unfeeling relative, 
who had taken on herself the office of protectress. 

James VI., the son and successor of Mary, 
after having governed Scotland for some time 
with a tolerable share of ability, was, by the 
death of Elizabeth, called to the English throne, 
in right of his descent from Henry VII. From 
that time Britain was governed by one prince, 
but Scotland had its parliaments and a shadow of 
independence, until the reign of Queen Anne, 
when, by the Union, Britain became one king- 
dom. This measure at first gave great offence 
to all ranks in Scotland ; but the rapid progress 
in wealth and in power made by Britain, and 
largely participated in by Scotland, has long since 
reconciled all parties, and fully proved the wisdom 
of the measure. 



IKELAND. 

The Irish even surpass the other parts of 
Great Britain in their pretensions to an existence 
of remote antiquity, the Deluge itself scarcely 
limiting their retrospective views. If we believe 
some of her native writers, Ireland " was a great 
and flourishing kingdom when the whole con- 
" L 3 



222 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

tinent of Europe was a continued forest, or 
peopled by tribes not surpassing in civilisation the 
Indians of North America." We are not in- 
formed by what desolating reverses this flou- 
rishing state of ■ society was destroyed ; but 
certain it is, that the first authentic history we 
have describes it as fully as rude and barbarous 
as its British and Gaulish neighbours. There is 
good historic proof that the Celts either went, or 
were driven by the Gauls, into Ireland ; but when 
is not so clear. The few glimpses of Irish history 
that can be obtained, before the tenth century, 
show that it was invaded by the Romans under 
Agricola ; that at one period it was called Scotia, 
and that Christianity was introduced about the 
fourth century. In the sixth century so many 
holy men were sent out to propagate the Gospel, 
that it was dignified by the title of Insula Sane- 
torum, or " Island of Saints." When Henry II., 
taking advantage of the situation of Dermot, 
carried troops into Ireland, with a determination 
to conquer the island, he found it divided into 
five small kingdoms of demi- civilised inhabitants, 
badly governed, and torn to pieces by fierce and 
savage contentions. With no great difficulty the 
whole country was subjugated to the power of 
Henry, who, having made Strongbow governor, 
returned to England. 

Richard paid little attention to Ireland ; but 
John endeavoured to give it laws, and Henry III. 
extended Magna Charta to this portion of his do- 
minions. 



EUROPE. 223 

During several succeeding reigns the Irish, 
assisted sometimes by the Scotch, sometimes by 
the French, were found a troublesome and un- 
profitable appendage to the British crown. 

In the reign of Elizabeth the Spaniards as- 
sisted the Irish in endeavouring to throw off the 
English yoke, but did not suceeed ; on the con- 
trary, Elizabeth fully confirmed the English do- 
minion in that island. James planted colonies 
from England and Scotland in various parts of 
the country ; introduced a just and impartial ad- 
ministration of justice, and opened the way for 
future improvements and an increase of civilisa- 
tion, which gradually took place ; but, contrary 
to expectation, increase of knowledge only ren- 
dered them the more dissatisfied, teaching them 
to believe that they had been unjustly deprived of 
privileges which they were determined to recover. 

The history of Ireland for the last century is 
only that of resistance to England, and opposition 
to her government, with insane atrocities and 
rebellions that must ever stain the page of his- 
torv. 

During the French revolution the French 
offered to lend them assistance to throw off the 
yoke of Britain, which they found so hateful. 
These designs soon precipitated the nation into all 
the horrors of rebellion and civil war, and the 
most savage outrages were committed by the 
" United Irishmen," a society who found means 
of opening a correspondence with the French 
Directory ; and a plan of invasion having been 
L 4 



224 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

concerted. La Hoche, with a few miserable troops, 
landed in Ireland in 1796, but were soon forced 
to surrender unconditionally. It was at last 
found necessary to repress the rebellion by vigor- 
ous measures. Many of the delegates were 
seized in different parts. An attempt to seize the 
castle was, by the force of arms, rendered ineffec- 
tual. Several towns were attacked by the rebels, 
and outrages that disgrace humanity committed. 
They were, however, weakened by repeated de- 
feats, when Government sent Lord Cornwallis to 
Ireland as lord-lieutenant — a man whose military 
talents were as great as his virtues and moder- 
ation were exemplary. He immediately held out 
the olive-branch of peace, and a bill of amnesty 
was passed, so that at last this alarming rebellion 
was completely defeated, their French allies 
having forgotten all promise of assistance after 
their one puny effort. To prevent as much as 
possible similar insurrections, and to consolidate 
the interests of the British empire, it was resolved 
to unite the kingdoms of England and Ireland as 
one. To this a strong opposition was made, 
headed by Mr. Grattan; but it was eventually 
carried, by a large majority, in 1799. 

A rash attempt was made in 1803 by a few 
discontented, wild young men to overturn the 
order thus introduced, with no other advantage 
than ruin to themselves. It was hoped that this 
measure would procure lasting peace, and with it 
prosperity to Ireland ; but alas, for that ill-fated 
country, ill-disposed persons are ever to be found 



EUROPE. 225 

ready to fan into a flame the half-smothered embers 
of insurrection and rebellion that lie hidden in 
their excitable, impassioned natures. For many 
years O'Connell kept the country in a constant 
agitation, the consequence of which was a fright- 
ful state of crime, famine, and disease. In the 
year 1833, in one province alone there were 
196 murders and 2000 burglaries and house- 
breakings. The cry was " Give us our rights." 
" Give us Catholic Emancipation." The Govern- 
ment yielded. Catholic Emancipation was granted, 
by a bill giving them seats in the Houses of Lords 
and Commons, and all the privileges enjoyed by 
Englishmen. No sooner was this granted than a 
loud cry was raised for a repeal of the Union, 
which O'Connell had even the temerity to propose 
in the House. In Ireland he traversed the country 
from end to end, stirring up sedition by collecting 
monster meetings, and talking the excited mul- 
titude into madness. Death has at length re- 
leased the country from a man who under the 
guise of pure, warm patriotism was the greatest 
enemy it ever had. 

In 1845 an increased grant was made to the 
College of Maynooth for the education of the 
Catholic priesthood. Another measure has been 
adopted for the enlargement of academical edu- 
cation in Ireland, by winch religion and education 
are divorced, and at liberty to part company. It 
has been called " a gigantic scheme of godless 
education." The bill was brought in and carried 
to conciliate the Koman Catholics in Ireland, but 
l5 



226 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

like every other effort to serve, assist, or conciliate, 
it has as yet proved abortive. The failure of the 
potato-crop in 1845 and 1846, produced famine 
and disease to a frightful extent. The Govern- 
ment and the nation of England rescued them 
from this scene of death and desolation, but failed 
in making any impression on the better parts of 
their nature. The year 1847 was distinguished 
by wrong and outrage. Truly this people are a 
rebellious people, and their only cure is in an 
increase of Gospel light and love to God. How 
that is to be imparted, He alone, in whose hands 
are the hearts of all men, can show. 



AMERICA. 



America, which extends from north to south 
of the western hemisphere, and now holds a po- 
sition of great importance in the scale of nations, 
was unknown to the ancient world ; nor did the 
moderns conceive of such a country until the 
indefatigable and enterprising Columbus with in- 
credible difficulty obtaining assistance from Fer- 
dinand and Isabella of Spain, set sail in 1492, 
with a very small number of men and three vessels 
to go westward in search of adventure, and after 
a voyage of thirty-three days amidst the murmurs 
of a discontented crew, landed at one of the Ba- 
hama Islands. He afterwards discovered Cuba 
and Hispaniola, but never succeeded in landing 
on Continental America. 

Columbus died in poverty at Valladolid in 1506 ; 
but the wealth he had brought into Europe tempted 
many persons to prosecute researches at their own 
expense. One of these was Americus Vesputius, a 
merchant of Florence, who started to South Ame- 
rica, and from him the country takes its name, 
though that honour was justly due to Columbus. 
The wealth and description of the rich and beautiful 
L 6 



228 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

country brought home by merchants and other 
adventurers, raised in the avaricious Spaniards a 
desire to possess some part of a land abounding 
in gold, silver, and precious stones. 

Fernando Cortez was therefore fitted out with 
an armed force from Cuba, and departed with a 
determination to subdue the empire of Mexico, 
a powerful country inhabited by a polished and 
intelligent race, under the mild and peaceful 
government of Montezuma; who, as a nation, 
ranked very high as warriors among surrounding 
nations. 

Mexico, their capital, was a splendid city, glit- 
tering in shops, jewellery, gold, silver, and magni- 
ficent palaces; but valiant warriors though they 
were, they were so alarmed at the sight of 
armed Spaniards mounted on what appeared to 
them monsters (for they had never seen horses), 
that they offered very little resistance. Along the 
coast, and at their capital, Montezuma met and 
received the Spaniards with the utmost kindness, 
more anxious to preserve his people from the 
effects of their artificial thunder, and the terrific 
animals that bore them, than to defend his beau- 
tiful city. This mildness met a very ungrateful 
return from the Spaniards, who, having made 
Montezuma prisoner by stratagem, soon after 
killed him. The unhappy Mexicans elected Gua- 
temozin their king, and under him made great 
efforts to recover their freedom from the inhuman 
and cruel Spaniards, who, in their lust after 
wealth, spared neither age nor sex : no enormity 



AMERICA. 229 

was too great or too revolting for theni to commit. 
The poor Mexicans fell in thousands before what 
they called " the Spanish thunder." 

Guatemozin was taken prisoner, and suffered 
every torture that the unbridled passions of man 
could suggest. He was accused of having hidden 
treasures, and to make him confess where they 
were hidden, no imaginable torture was spared. 
While extended over a slow fire of burning coals, 
his high priest, who was suffering the same kind of 
torture near him, uttered, in his extremity, some 
words of reproach. Guatemozin mildly turned 
his eyes on the priest, saying, ; — " Do I then re- 
pose on a bed of roses?" It was by the basest 
arts, the most lawless plunder, the most cruel, 
disgusting and inhuman acts of villany, that 
the Spaniards made a complete conquest of this 
country. 

In 1525, scenes of the same horrible description 
were again perpetrated by the ferocius Pizarro and 
Almagro, in the conquest of Peru. Many de- 
scriptions have been written, but nothing that the 
pen can paint w T ill half equal the barbarities of 
these monsters, miscalled Christians. At length 
the wretched Peruvians abandoned Cusco, their 
capital, and were glad to escape with their lives, 
leaving the mangled remains of those they loved 
behind, and fled into the interior of their but 
too inviting country. Increase of wealth does 
not always add to the welfare or true prosperity 
of a country. Spain gained the rich provinces of 
South America, but lost her energy and industry. 
Who would work, when gold, silver, and pre- 



230 UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 

cious stones in abundance were to be had for 
fetching? Has the national character been im- 
proved by these acquisitions ? The present state 
of Spain and Portugal will answer the question. 

Soon after the discovery of South America, 
John Sebastian Cabot, an Englishman in the 
Portuguese service, discovered Newfoundland, and 
all that part of the north-east coast, known as 
the United States. It was peopled by different 
tribes of Indians under their respective chiefs, a 
wild, savage, warlike people, often at war with 
each other ; capable of enduring fatigue, and the 
most excruciating agonies without a pang. There 
was not much in North America to excite the cu- 
pidity or avarice of men, but it held out the pro- 
spect of a home and maintenance to many who 
could not find either in their native countries. 
Thus settlements were rapidly formed by the 
French, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. The 
severe oppressions to which the Nonconformists 
were subject under Charles and James II. drove 
a body of them to seek refuge in the New World, 
and these " pilgrim fathers " laid the founda- 
tions of Pennsylvania, New York, and several other 
states ; Virginia, Carolina, and Georgia, with 
some others, were colonised by England, during 
the reigns of Anne and George I. 

The United States were, in fact, chiefly colo- 
nies of Great Britain, and remained subject to 
the British crown, until various taxes, some of 
them considered burthensome and unjust, were 
levied without the consent of the colonists, who 
now began to feel their own strength, and deter- 



AMERICA. 231 

mined to resist taxation altogether. In July, 
1776, the representatives of the different states 
assembled in congress, and published a declaration 
of independence ; thus separating at once from the 
mother country. The French, ever eager to em- 
brace an opportunity of humbling England, em- 
braced the American cause. After a struggle of 
seven years against Great Britain, during which 
the Americans displayed great valour, courage, 
and prudence, their independence was recognized 
by the mother country, and America became a 
free nation, and formed a liberal constitution 
under a federal republic, then consisting of thir- 
teen states. Eleven new states have since been 
added, besides three territories not yet erected 
into states. Population, trade, and commerce are 
greatly increasing. 

In 1812 America declared war against Great 
Britain, but peace was happily restored in 1814. 
Lower Canada was conquered from the French, 
and confirmed to Britain in the peace of 1763. 
Many of the European inhabitants are of French 
extraction and Roman Catholics, and have a 
bishop appointed by her Britannic Majesty ; but 
Protestantism is professedly the religion of Canada, 
under an English bishop. For many years Canada 
was a clog round the neck of Great Britain, and 
except as a refuge for her overgrown population, 
it is doubtful whether even now it be of any real 
advantage. 

Soon after the invasion of Spain by the French 
in 1808, the Spanish colonies of South America, 



232 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

which had hitherto been vice-royalties of Spain, 
began to be agitated by a revolutionary spirit, 
which was with difficulty kept down for a few 
years; but in 1821 Mexico, or New Spain, de- 
clared its independence; in 1822 a native mi- 
litary chieftain, Augustin Iturbide, caused him- 
self to be proclaimed emperor, but was obliged to 
abdicate in a year; and in 1824 the Mexicans 
adopted a constitution of government formed on 
the model of the United States. In the fol- 
lowing years all the Spanish colonies, one after 
another, with the exception, perhaps, of Brazil, 
declared themselves independent, and formed 
separate republican constitutions. 

But the people were not prepared by character, 
education, religion, or habit, to support their con- 
stitutions ; and hitherto these new republics have 
presented little else than misrule, revolution, and 
disaster. 

When Bonaparte declared war against Portugal, 
the regent, with all the royal family, escaped to 
Brazil, which was raised to the rank of a kingdom 
in 1815. In 1816, by the death of his mother, 
John succeeded to the crown of Portugal, and in 
1821 returned to Portugal, leaving his son, Pedro, 
as regent. Brazil, however, in common with the 
other provinces, declared its own independence in 
1822 ; but with this difference — instead of a re- 
public, Pedro was crowned Emperor of Brazil. 
On the death of John, in 1826, Pedro declared 
his daughter, the Donna Maria Gloria, Queen of 
Portugal; and in 1831 he abdicated the throne of 



AMERICA. 233 

Brazil in favour of his son, Pedro EL, then only 
six years of age, who is Emperor of Brazil ; but 
the government is under a regency. Brazil is 
now an hereditary monarchy, with a legislative 
assembly, consisting of a senate appointed by the 
emperor, and a house of representatives elected 
by the people. The religion of the state is Roman 
Catholic. All other Christians are tolerated, so 
far as to be allowed to perform their services in 
private; but public worship, or the building of 
churches, is strictly prohibited to all but Roman 
Catholics. 



CONCLUSION. 



Since this little work has been written, and 
while passing through the press, so many and such 
great changes have rapidly chased each other over 
Europe, and the political horizon is still so dark 
and cloudy, that it has been found impossible to 
conclude the separate histories satisfactorily. The 
position of France, the leader in this revolu- 
tionary race, remains one of doubt, distraction, 
and a fearful looking forward. Denmark and 
Prussia are almost equally unsettled. The King 
of Bavaria has preferred his Amazonian mistress 
to his throne, of which Maximilian holds uncer- 
tain possession. The venerable Emperor of Aus- 
tria seeks shelter from " the pelting of the pitiless 
storm," by hiding his grey hairs in retirement ; 
while Italy, roused from her " dolce fa^ niente," 
has snatched the state from papal power, and 
struggles for her place among nations. Even im- 
perial Russia is shaken to her centre; and the 
Poles again look up with hope. Great Britain, 
strong in her insular position, her excellent con- 
stitution, and the loyal hearts of her faithful sub- 



CONCLUSION. 235 

jeets, ever ready to afford protection to the exile, 
acknowledges that her true bulwarks are a pray- 
ing, God-serving people, — her true strength the 
Lord God, strong in battle, — and her sure de- 
fence the Most High, in whose hands are the four 
winds of heaven. 



EXERCISES 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY 



1. How is it necessary to divide time, as respects 

History ? 

2. What is the advantage gained by this division ? 

3. What is the next division of History ? 

4. Did God make any covenant with Noah ? and, if so, 

what was it ? 

5. What circumstances, connected with the building of 

Babel, do you recollect ? 

6. Relate the circumstances of the call of Abraham. 

7. At what period, and by whom, was the Assyrian 

monarchy founded ? 

8. Who was Sardanapalus, and what did he ? 
9- What king rendered the Egyptians famous ? 

10. In what period was Rome governed by kings ? 

11. Who was Cyrus, and at what period did he live ? 

12. What does the seventh period contain ? 

13. How T many years elapsed between Constantine the 

Great and the extinction of the Western Empire ? 

14. What does the eighth period comprehend and contain ? 

15. In what period were the Romans invaded by the 

Vandals and Visigoths ? 

16. In what period was the Carlovingian race founded ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 237 

1 7. What does the eleventh period contain ? 

18. What period contains the history of the Crusaders ? 
19- Were there ever two popes at one time ? 

20. In what period do you find the history of Tamer- 

lane and Bajazet ? 

21. During which period was America discovered ? 

22. What are' the chief events of the fourteenth period ? 

23. In which period flourished Charles XII. of Sweden 

and Frederic the Great ? 

24. In which, Pope Leo X., Henry IV. of France, and 

Philip II. of Spain ? 

25. In which, Alexander, Darius, Porus, and Cyrus ? 

26. In which was the conquests of the Romans over 

Asia Minor and Syria ? 

27. In what period do you place the battle of Trafalgar, 

the Revolution and Reign of Terror in France, the 
accession of the Duke of Cumberland to the throne 
of Hanover, and the burning of Moscow ? 

28. Into how many periods do you divide History ? 

29. At what date do we place the universal deluge ? 

30. How was the world re-peopled ? 

31. Where is the Garden of Eden supposed to have stood? 

32. Did God give any signal proof of displeasure with the 

sons of men after the flood ? 

33. When, and by whom, was the first monarchy founded ? 

34. With what kingdom was this monarchy united, and 

what name did it then assume ? 

35. What were the circumstances that led to this event ? 

36. Who founded the Macedonian empire, and how ? 

37. Which of the four divisions of the globe is the most 

illustrious ? 

38. Why? 

39. Who was Porus ? 

40. From what does India take its name ? 

41. What is said of Nadir Shah ? 

42. Who was Allahabad, and what his fate ? 

43. Have the British possessions in Asia ? 

44. What are they doing for the natives ? 

45. Where is the most authentic record to be found ? 

46. Of what peculiar family do the Scriptures speak ? 

47. Has this family been kept a distinct people ? 



238 EXERCISES ON 

48. Is there anything remarkable relating to their land ? 

4.Q. At what date does the history of the Jews commence ? 

50. How old was Abraham at his first call ? 

51. What happened at Moreh ? 

52. Into what snare did Abraham fall ? 

53. Who were the parents of Ishmael and Isaac ? 

54. Where are the descendants of Ishmael to be found ? 

55. What is their religions faith ? 

56. Why was Esau called Edom ? 

57. Was Jacob willing to enter into the plans of his 

mother ? 

58. Did Rebekah seek a temporal or spiritual blessing for 

her son ? 

59. What became of the brothers ? 

60. Did Jacob incur any punishment for his actions ? 

61. With whom did Jacob dwell ? 

62. Why did he leave that country ? 

63. Did the brothers meet again ? how and where ? 

64. Where did Jacob take up his abode ? 

65. What circumstances occurred to him there ? 

66. How did Jacob acknowledge his sinfulness ? 

67. Has any modern traveller discovered the burying- 

place of Rachel ? 

68. Why did the sons of the patriarch go into Egypt ? 

69. Is there any appearance that the patriarch was a par- 

tial father? 

70. To what consequences did the evil act of the bro- 

thers lead ? 

71. What has been said of Egypt ? 

72. How do you account for its downfall ? 

73. What led the Israelites first into Egypt ? 

74. How did they incur the anger of Pharaoh ? 

75. Where did Moses receive the laws ? 

76. What was the peculiar blessing given to Ephraim 

and Manasseh ? 

77. Did Pharaoh let the Israelites go willingly ? 

78. What induced Moses to ask permission of Pharaoh 

for the departure of the Jews ? 

79. In what way did Moses, when young, show his dis- 

like to the Egyptians ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 239 

80. Why was Moses not allowed to enter the promised 

land ? 

81. In what way did the names appropriated to the trices 

prefigure their fate ? 

82. Where was the wilderness in which the Jews wan- 

dered ? 

83. How were they directed in their journeyings ? 

84. How do modern travellers describe the rock struck 

by Moses ? 

85. What number crossed into Canaan ? 

86. Where was Canaan situated, and how peopled ? 

87. Have the prophecies of Balaam been fulfilled? 

88. Who remained of those sent to examine the land ? 

89. Where did Miriam die ? 

90. What became of Jericho ? 

91. Was any prophecy fulfilled by its being rebuilt? 

92. Where are the conquests of the Jews related ? 

93. Is the history of the Jews a common one ? 

94. Why were the inhabitants of Canaan driven out ? 

95. What was the original cause of the idolatrous prac- 

tices of the Jews ? 

96. Who was the first judge ? 

97. Whose manners do those of the Bedouins resemble ? 

98. When and by whom were the Jews first taken into 

bondage ? 
99« By whom and when were they rescued ? 
TOO. What lesson does the history of Eli teach? 

101. What does that of Samuel and his parents teach ? 

102. What did the Jews desire in the days of Samuel ? 

103. What do you know of the character of Saul ? 

104. What brought Saul into difficulties ? 

105. Whom did he consult when old? 

106. What became of the body of Saul after his death ? 

107. How many years was this after the Jews had settled 

in Canaan ? 

108. Where did David cause the ark to be removed ? 

109. Can you tell me what Psalms are supposed to have 

been written on this occasion ? 

110. Was David a judicious father ? 

111. What building did David design and plan ? 

112. How did Solomon begin his reign ? 

# 



240 EXEKCISES ON 

113. What was the extent of his dominions ? 

114. Describe the completion and dedication of the 

Temple ? 

115. What is the character of the Proverbs of Solomon ? j 

11 6. Into what sins did Solomon fall? 

117. What was the declaration of God? 

118. Were the tribes obedient to Rehoboam? 

lip. Who opposed him, and what were the consequences? 

120. How did the Levites behave ? 

121. What awful circumstances followed this ? 

122. How did the kingdom of Judah prosper ? 

123. What is evident through the whole history of Judah 

and Israel ? 

124. What was the character of Jehoshaphat? 

125. What relative was Jezebel to Dido ? 

126. Did the prophet Elijah warn the children of Israel 

at this time of their faults ? 

127. Where did he hide himself from the furious Ahab ? 

128. What proof did he offer that he was sent by God ? 

129. What were the peculiar sins of the Israelites at this 

time ? 

130. Of whom was Elijah a type? 

131. How did Jeroboam enlarge his dominions ? 

132. For what was the temple in Samaria built ? 

1 33. In whose reign were the Olympiads first celebrated ? 

134. In whose reign did Isaiah prophesy ? 

135. Were the Israelites attentive to his prophecies? 

136. What did Jotham do for the city of Jerusalem ? 

137. At what period were the Jews taken captive by the 

Assyrians ? 

138. In what state was Jerusalem and the Jewish nation 

at this period ? 

139. Did they improve at all in the reign of Hezekiah ? 

140. To what was Canaan exposed by its position ? 

141. Who formed an alliance with Egypt, and revolted 

from the Assyrians ? 

142. Who besieged Samaria, and how long did the siege 

last? 

143. Where were the tribes carried, and what is said of 

them ? 

144. Who invaded Judea ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 241 

1 45. What happened to his armies ? 

146. What are now the only remains of ancient Jeru- 

salem ? 

147. In wftat state did Maundrell find them ? 

148. What would the description of Babylon, Tyre, 

Egypt, and Idumea he ? 
149- Which is the most wretched reign in the history of 
Judea ? 

150. What became of Manasseh ? 

151. Did he ever return to Jerusalem ? 

152. What happened in Jerusalem during the reign of 

Josiah ? 

153. To whom were the Israelites now vassals? 

154. At what period did Nebuchadnezzar destroy Jeru- 

salem ? 

155. Were any left in Jerusalem at all? 

156. What became of the remnants of the ten tribes ? 

157. Did any other people possess Palestine? 

1 58. Was any prophecy fulfilled by this ? 

15y. What were the two great ruling powers of the 
world at this period ? 

160. What induced Nebuchadnezzar to treat the Jews 

with some degree of respect ? 

161. Who was Daniel and his companions? 

162. What lesson may be learned from their history? 

163. What nations did Nebuchadnezzar subdue, and what 

does he appear to be ? 

164. Who subdued the mighty Babylon ? 

165. Had the Jews grown reconciled to their residence in 

Babylonia ? 

166. Did they live there as a separate people? 

167. What was among the earliest acts of Cyrus? 

168. Was the permission eagerly embraced? 

169. What proverb have the Jews relating to this? 

170. How long had the Jews been in captivity? 

171. Who led them back? 

172. What did they first do? 

173. Did the temple proceed rapidly ? 

1 74. When was it completed ? 

175. Whence grew the bitter hatred between the Jews 

and the Samaritans ? 

M 



242 EXEECISES IN 

176. What plot was formed to destroy all the Jews in 

Persia ? 
177« Does any memorial remain of the circumstance? 

178. Did Jerusalem regain her ancient splendour? 

179. Did the Jews continue pure in their faith? 

180. With what country does their history now become 

blended ? 

181. What privileges did Alexander grant them ? 

182. How did Ptolemy Lagus act towards the Jews? 

183. What temple had they now ? 

184. Who completed the canons of the Old Testament? 

185. What was the origin of the Sadducees? 

186. What was the conduct of Ptolemy Philopater towards 

the Jews ? 
187» What did Antiochus the Great for them ? 

188. Is this name noticed in the New Testament? 

189. Which was the kingdom '? strong as iron ?.',' 

190. Who was killed in attempting to plunder the temple 

of Jupiter Belus ? 

191. Did the Jews again fall into idolatry? 

1 92. What causes may be found for this ? 

193. What numbers are said to have fallen in Jerusalem 

by the massacre of Antiochus ? 

194. What was the conduct of Antiochus as respected the 

altars ? 

195. Were the sufferings of the Jews great? 

1 96. Who were their deliverers ? 

1 97. Who were the Maccabees ? 

198. What was the result of this struggle ? 

199- What did the Jews reckon from this period ? 

200. What did John Hyrcanus ? 

201. What did Judah now rank? 

202. What does Whiston remark of the Asmonians ? 

203. Who now became troublesome to the Jews ? 

204. Who was appointed their governor ? 

205. How did Herod signalize his reign ? 

206. By whom were the Jews now entirely subdued ? 
207* What remarkable points do you find in the history 

of the Jews ? 

208. What appear to have been their peculiar sins ? 

209. How did they receive our Saviour Christ the Lord ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTOKY. 243 

210. How may Palestine be now described ? 

211. Was Africa known to the ancients? 

212. What proof have we of this ? 

213. How many aboriginal tribes were there, and what 

were they called ? 

214. What part of Africa ranks lowest in moral and in- 

tellectual value ? 

215. When was the Christian faith first introduced ? 

21 6. What are the principal doctrines professed in Africa? 
217- What has contributed to render Africa familiar to 

the present age ? 

218. What do you know of Sesostris? 

219' By whom are the pyramids supposed to have been 

built ? 

220. Who built Alexandria ? and who the Pharos ? 

221. When did Egypt become a province of Rome ? 

222. Who was Saladin ? and what do you know of him ? 

223. Who were the Mamelukes ? 

224. How long did they hold power in Egypt ? 

225. What occurred in Egypt in 1 798 ? 

226. From whence comes the name Abyssinia ? 

227. What induced the Portuguese to go into Abyssinia ? 

228. What did the Emperor Socinius? 

229. To whom are we indebted for our knowledge of 

Abyssinia ? 

230. At what date and where did Dido found a city ? 

231. When did this country first become known as 

Africa ? 

232. When did the Vandals make themselves masters of 

some parts of Africa ? 

233. Who were the Saracens ? 

234. For what has Barbary been eminent ? 

235. What was Morocco anciently called ? 
286. Who first assumed the title of Caliph ? 

237. Who ascended the throne of Morocco in 1822? 

238. What do you know of Mohammed Ali Pacha? 

239. Between whom was Algiers originally divided ? 

240. Whose aid did the Algerines seek against the Spa- 

niards ? 

241. Who sought to subdue this country ? 

242. To what country does it now belong ? 

M 2 



244 EXERCISES IN 

243. By whom and when was the first monarchy of 

Russia founded ? 

244. When does the history of Russia become interest- 

ing ? 

245. What do you know of the Czar Michael ? 

246. By whom and when were the first posts established 

in Russia ? 

247. What king made the greatest progress in civilising 

Russia ? 

248. Where and how did he obtain his information ? 

249. What was the character of the widow of Peter III., 

and what the character of her reign ? 

250. When was the third partition of Poland ? 

251. What is the extent of the Russian territory ? 

252. Who in the early part of the nineteenth century in- 

vaded Russia ? 

253. What was the result of this invasion ? 

254. How died Paul I. ? 

255. What were Denmark, Sweden, and Norway originally 

called ? 

256. Under what chief did the Danes first become emi- 

nent ? 

257. When did Denmark first become a kingdom ? 

258. When did Denmark obtain its highest pitch of 

glory ? 

259. When did religion first make its way ? 

260. Who was Margaret of Valdemer ? 

261. Who was the founder of the family of Oldenburg ? 

262. Who was the founder of the house of Holstein- 

Gottorp ? 

263. What occurred in 1660? 

264. What in 1718? 

265. What was the character of Frederic ? 

266. Who was Struenzee ? 

267- Who were the aboriginal inhabitants of Sweden ? 

268. When did that country first embrace Christianity ? 

269. With what countries has it been repeatedly united ? 

270. Who was Gustavus, and what did he do for that 

country ? 

271. Who tended to exalt the Swedish name? 

272. Who was Christina, and what did she ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 245 

273. Of what character are the exploits of Charles XII. ? 

274. Was it ever a commercial country ? 

275. What did Bonaparte in Sweden ? 

276. Who is now king of that country ? 

277. Describe the country and natives of Norway. 

278. Has Norway any national literature ? 
279- Where is the first notice of Germany ? 

280. Of what country does Germany appear to be com- 

posed ? 

281. When did the Romans first attempt to subdue it ? 

282. Where was the empire of the Goths and that of the 

Visigoths ? 

283. What effect had the destruction of the western em- 

pire? 

284. Who was the first Merovingian king ? 

285. What did Charlemagne for Germany ? 

286. What was Spain called in 778 ? 

287. What was the extent of the empire of Charlemagne ? 

288. What happened after the death of Louis le De- 

bonnaire ? 

289. Who established the house Hohenstaufen ? 

290. With whom did that house expire ? 

291. What do you know of Rudolph of Hapsburg? 

292. Who founded the university of Prague ? 

293. What happened in the reign of Albrecht I. ? 

294. What did Jerome of Prague ? 

295. For what was the Council of Constance invoked ? 

296. What happened on a mountain called Mount Tabor? 

297. When did Frederic III. come to the German throne ? 

298. Describe his reign. 

299- At what time did the Reformation take place, and 
how proceed ? 

300. Why were the Christians called Protestants ? 

301. What was the nature of the contest between Fer- 

dinand I. and the Pope ? 

302. Who founded the order of Jesuits ? 

303. What extinguished the line of Hapsburg ? 

304. At what period did Germany enjoy the greatest 

degree of peace ? 

305. What effect had the revolution of 1789 upon Ger- 



many ? 



31 3 



246 EXERCISES IX 

306. When, and by whom, was the title of Emperor of 

Germany changed to that of Emperor of Austria ? 

307. When was the Germanic Confederation established ? 

308. From what race are the Prussians descended ? 

309. Who attempted to introduce Christianity ? 

310. Who first obtained the entire sovereignty of Prussia? 

311. Under whom was this independence lost? 

312. Who laid the foundation of the military of Russia ? 

313. What do you know of Frederic the Great ? 

314. Who was his mother ? 

315. What remains a stain upon his glory ? 

316. When, and by whom, was Poland again partitioned ? 

317. Who finally destroyed this country? 

318. What were the consequences of the battle of Jena ? 

319. What was gained by the peace of Tilsit ? 

320. What of the peace of Paris ? 

321. What was the original name of Switzerland, whence 

derived ? 

322. When did it become a Roman province ? 

323. At what period was Chistianity introduced ? 

324. In what manner, and at what period, did William 

Tell become famous ? 

325. What effect had the doctrines of Luther and Calvin 

in Switzerland ? 

326. What did the inhabitants of the Pays du Vaud in 

1796? 
327- When did Switzerland become united to France ? 

328. When did she recover her independence ? 

329. What is now her position ? 

330. Where are the earliest accounts to be found of the 

history of France ? 

331. What was the country then called ? 

332. By whom were they conquered ? 

333. What was their first race of monarchs ? 

334. Whose influence rendered these sovereigns nominal ? 

335. Who was Pepin ? 

336. When does the history of France, as a separate king- 

dom, begin ? 

337. When did the Emperor of Germany take possession 

of the throne of France ? 

338. Who were the Carlovingian race ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 247 

339- Which was the third dynasty of France, by whom 
founded ? 

340. What were the effects on England of the disputes 

between Robert of Normandy and his brother 
Henry ? 

341. Who were the husbands of Eleanor, heiress of 

Giuenne ? 

342. When was the first creation of Marechals in France? 

343. What rendered the reign of Louis VIII. infamous ? 

344. Who founded the Sorbonne ? 

345. What produced disputes between Philip of France 

and Edward of England ? 

346. What happened to John-le-bon ? 

347. What two females became famous by their victories ? 

348. Who did Louis XII. marry, and what was he called ? 

349. In whose reign did the reformed religion spread in 

France ? 

350. To what did the bigotry of Henry II. lead? 

351. Who was Catherine de Medicis ? 

352. Who was the Prince of Conde ? 

353. Relate the circumstances of the massacre of St. 

Bartholomew. 

354. How died Henry III., and what was his character ? 

355. What was the character of Henry IV., and what his 

death ? 

356. Describe the reign of Louis XIV. 

357. In what state did Louis XVI. find the nation ? 

358. What was the family fault of the Bourbons ? 

359. What was the effect on the French nation of the 

writings of Voltaire and others, and the American 
independence ? 

360. When was the tree of liberty first planted in France ? 

361. When was France first declared a Republic? 

362. Describe the country until 1795? 

363. When did Bonaparte first become known, and who 

was he ? 

364. When was the Venetian territory overthrown ? 

365. When did France become a republic with a consular 

constitution ? 

366. What was Napoleon proclaimed in 1804 ? 

31 4 



248 EXERCISES IN 

367. What countries did lie bestow on his family and 

generals in 1805-6? 

368. What was the effect of his attack upon Russia ? 

369. What occurred in 1 8 1 5 ? 

370. Where did Bonaparte die ? 

371. What happened in July, 1830 ? 

372. Was Louis Philippe a prosperous king ? 

373. What happened in 1847? 

374. From whom are the inhabitants of Spain descended ? 

375. Have the north and south the same origin ? 

376. When did Spain become a Roman province ? 

377. How long did they preserve their dominion ? 

378. By whom and when was the empire of the Visigoths 

founded in Spain ? 

379. When did the Moors enter Spain ? 

380. In what state was Spain in the 10th century ? 

381. When did Spain become one kingdom ? 

382. In whose reign were the Moors expelled? 

383. When and by whom was the Inquisition established ? 

384. What was the character of Charles I. of Spain ? 

385. Who was the husband of Mary, Queen of England ? 

386. Describe his character and actions. 

387. Who expelled the Moors and Jews ? 

388. With whom has Spain been frequently at war ? 

389. What treaty was signed in 176l ? 

390. What occurred after the death of Louis XVI. ? 

391. What conspiracy was attributed to the Prince of 

Peace, and what were its effects ? 

392. When did the French enter Spain ? 

393. Who did Napoleon place as king over it ? 

394. To whom were the Spanish indebted for assistance ? 

395. How did Ferdinand act after his restoration ? 

396. Who was Riego, and what was his fate ? 

397. What produced quarrels between Don Carlos and 

his niece ? 

398. What royal marriages lately took place in Spain ? 
399' With what other countries is the history of Portugal 

bound up ? 

400. What did John, Duke of Braganza, for the country? 

401. What did the Marquis di Pombal? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 249 

402. When and why was the Prince of Brazil appointed 

Regent ? 

403. What became of the Regent and his family when 

the French entered Portugal ? 

404. Who were Don Miguel and Maria da Gloria ? 

405. Who succeeded to the throne of Portugal ? 

406. To what does the early part of the history of Italy 

belong ? 
407- In what is the epoch of Roman kings involved? 

408. On what was the constitution of Rome founded ? 

409. What was the original size of the Roman colony, 

and to what did it extend ? 

410. What crowns were united by Charlemagne? 

411. Who first assumed the title of king of the Two 

Sicilies ? 

412. Into whose possession did Naples and Sicily fall, 

after the Sicilian Vespers ? 

413. To whom did Don Carlos give the Two Sicilies, 

1759? 

414. Whom did Napoleon make king of the Two Sicilies ? 

415. Who and when was first created Duke of Savoy? 

416. Under whose influence was Milan raised to a duchy? 

417. What do you know of the house of Medici ? 

418. Which was the most powerful of the Italian states ? 

419. How long was this independence preserved? 

420. With whom was it then joined ? 

421. What is its present government? 

422. What part of Italy do the States of the Church 

embrace ? 

423. By whom and how was Rome founded ? 

424. What did Ancus Martius for Rome ? 

425. What Servius Tullus ? 

426. What government succeeded that of kings ? 

427. Who were the first consuls ? 

428. What long wars impoverished the Romans ? 

429. What were the laws of the Twelve Tables ? 

430. Relate what you know of the Decemviri. 

431. By whom was Rome sacked under Brennus? 

432. With whom did Rome struggle for fifty years ? 

433. Who were the Tarentines ? 

434. What embroiled the Romans with them ? 
* M 5 



250 EXERCISES IN 

435. With whom did Rome now struggle for twenty-five 

years ? 

436. When did she first possess a navy ? 

437. Who were the principal generals in the wars between 

Carthage and Rome ? 

438. By what conquest did Greece become a Roman pro- 

vince ? 

439. What did Caesar ? 

440. With whom did he contend ? 

441. Where was the fate of Pompey decided? 

442. How did Caesar die ? 

443. When was the Roman empire at its greatest extent ? 

444. What important event happened about this period ? 

445. What was the general character of the emperors who 

succeeded Tiberius ? 

446. What was the character of Trajan ? 

447. By whom was Jerusalem destroyed ? 

448. When and by whom was the Imperial dignity bought 

and sold ? 

449. When was the seat of empire transferred ? 

450. By whom was it transferred, and where ? 

45 1 . What was the next division ? 

452. By whom was the Roman empire eventually des- 

troyed ? 

453. When was it made a Greek province, and by whom ? 

454. How long was it governed by Popes ? 

455. What happened in 1797 ? 

456. Where did Pope Pius VII. reside, and what was his 

character ? 

457. What was the character of Leo XI ? 

458. How would you describe the remains of ancient Rome? 

459. What renders it still interesting ? 

460. With what other countries may she be ranked, and 

what is the lesson they afford ? 

461. What is the character of the Italians ? 

462. Of what does the Ionian republic consist ? 

463. Where do we find them particularly celebrated ? 

464. To whom have they been in subjection ? 

465. When did they become independent ? 

466. Under whose protection are they ? 

467. How long before the Christian era was Greece inha- 

bited ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 251 

468. Who founded Argos and Sicyon ? 

469. Who founded Athens and Thebes ? 

470. Whence came the name of Peloponesus ? 

471. At what period was the Trojan war? 

472. How long before Christ did Solon form his code of 

laws ? 

473. What was the extent of their dominion at the Persian 

invasion ? 

474. W ho saved the Greeks from the Persians ? 

475. What did Alcibiades, Pericles, and Phidias ? 
476*. What do you know of Socrates ? 

477. In what ways did Athens offend Sparta? 

478. In what did the kingdom of Macedon originate ? 
479- W r ith what state was it often at war ? 

480. What enabled Philip to redeem the state of Macedon ? 

481. What were Philip's aims, and what forwarded those 

aims ? 

482. What battle made Philip master of Greece ? 

483. How did Philip die, and who succeeded him ? 

484. Over what countries did Alexander extend his arms? 

485. Where did he meet his death, and in what manner ? 

486. How was the kingdom divided after the battle of 

Issus ? 

487. What were the iEtolian and Achaian leagues? 

488. When did the country become a Roman province ? 
489» Of what events w T as Greece the theatre in the first 

few centuries ? 

490. When was the conversion of Constantine, and what 

its consequences ? 

491. Who took Constantinople, and destroyed the western 

empire ? 

492. At what period do the Turks appear in history ? 

493. Who were the Kaliffs ? 

494. When did the Turkish dynasties reign in Palestine ? 

495. Who were the Mongols and Emirs ? 

496. Who founded the Ottoman Turks in Asia, and on 

what ? 

497. Did this nation attain great military pow T er ? 

498. Who was Timour the Tartar ? 

499- Who did he oppose, and with what success ? 
500. When did the western empire terminate ? 
M 6 



252 EXERCISES IN 

501. For what purpose was a conference held at Rei- 

ch en bach ? 

502. What was the fate of Prince Ypsilanti ? 

503. By whom were the Greeks dreadfully oppressed ? 

504. When and in what manner was the Morea relieved ? 

505. When was Greece erected into a kingdom ? 

506. Who was made king of Greece ? 

507- What was the Netherlands originally called ? 

508. When did the Netherlands become subject to Rome ? 

509. What preference was shown to the Batavians ? 

510. When was the Christian faith planted in the Ne- 

therlands ? 

511. Who was the Duchess of Parma, and how did she 

govern ? 

512. What was the declaration of Philip ? 

513. What was the boast of the Duke of Alva? 

514. Was this kingdom ever offered to an English 

sovereign ? 

515. When was the battle of Leipsic? 

516. What was the ancient name of Britain ? 

517. Is any thing known of the peopling of this island ? 

518. In what state did Caesar find the Britons? 
519- Describe their war carriages. 

520. Describe their religion. 

521. Did the Romans find the island an easy conquest? 

522. Did the islanders afterwards become attached to their 

conquerors ? 

523. Why did the Romans withdraw ? 

524. Who most annoyed the islanders ? 

525. What did Severus do for them ? 

526. Did the Romans assist them against the Picts and 

Scots ? 

527. To whom did they next apply ? 

528. How did the Saxons act towards the Britons ? 

529. Is the history of the Heptarchy clear ? 

530. Who united the kingdoms ? 

531. Who now struggled for the empire ? 

532. Who was William the Conqueror ? 

533. What were his pretences to the crown of England ? 

534. Having obtained it, did he govern the kingdom well? 

535. What domestic troubles assailed William ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 253 

536. What particulars can you relate of his reign ? 

537- How were the dominions of William divided among 

his sons ? 

538. What were their separate characters ? 

539- What steps did Henry take to obtain Normandy ? 

540. What misfortune hastened his death ? 

541. What was the claim of Stephen ? 

542. What the character of Matilda? 

543. Who was Henry Plantagenet, and why so called ? 

544. Who did he marry ? 

545. What difficulties did he find with the church govern- 

ment ? 

546. What can you relate of Thomas a Becket ? 

547. What grant did Henry obtain from Pope Adrian ? 

548. From what countries did he claim homage ? 

549. Can you relate any anecdote of his wife ? 

550. Who was Richard I., and what was his character ? 

551. What expedition did he engage in ? 

552. Was he successful in Palestine ? 

553. What happened as he returned ? 

554. Can you relate the circumstances of his death ? 

555. What can you relate of the history of John ? 

556. What was the event of his quarrel with the Pope ? 
557^ What was the famous deed he was compelled to 

sign ? 

558. Where and how did he die ? 

559. What friend of John proved a friend to his son ? 

560. At what age did the young Henry take the com- 

mand ? 

561. Where have we the first outline of the British par- 

liament ? 

562. Who was the Earl of Leicester ? 

563. What did he do for the kingdom ? 

564. Who succeeded Henry ? 

565. What did Edward do for the Welsh ? 

566. Who were the Welsh ? 

567. What title was given to his eldest son ? 

568. What charge did he give that son when dying ? 

569. Did Edward II. observe the commands of his father ? 

570. Who did he marry ? what was her character ? 

571. What was the death of Edward? 



254 EXERCISES IN 

572. What became of Isabella ? 

573. What circumstance led. Edward III. into France? 

574. What was the character of his son ? 

575. What advantages were gained over France ? 

576. In whose reign were law pleadings first given in 

English ? 

577. To whom was the administration of government 

given during the latter part of Edward's reign ? 

578. What caused the insurrection headed by Wat Tyler ? 
579« What character would you give Richard II. ? 

580. To what contest did the accession of Henry IV. 

lead ? 

581. What important rebellion took place during this 

reign ? 

582. Can you relate the particulars? 

583. What doctrines were now preached? 

584. What measures tended to strengthen them ? 

5S5. By what was the youth of Henry V. distinguished ? 

586. Did his character change when he became king? 

587« Can you relate his successes in France ? 

588. How would you describe the reign and character of 

Henry V. ? 

589. What was the character of Henry VI. ? 

590. To whom was he married ? 

591. What was her character ? 

592. With whom had he frequently to contend ? 

593. What nobleman was alternately the friend of both 

parties ? 

594. How did the dispute end ? 

595. What was the fate of Margaret ? 

596. What was the conduct of Edward when left to 

himself ? 
597- Who was the regent Gloucester ? 
598. What do you know of Lord Hastings and his fate ? 
599* How did Gloucester obtain the throne ? 

600. How did he die, and who succeeded ? 

601. What factions were united by his accession and 

marriage ? 

602. What sum did Henry spend on one ship ? 

603. How would you describe his reign ? 
b'04. Whom did Henry VIII. first marry ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 255 

605. Who was his particular friend and adviser ? 
6'06. How did this friend endanger his own and his mas- 
ter's power ? 

607. Did the Pope willingly consent to a divorce from 

Catherine of Arragon ? 

608. Can you tell me who were the several wives of 

Henry ? 

609. Who were the mothers of his three children ? 

610. What can you tell me respecting Cardinal Wolsey ? 

611. For what great work was Henry VIII. raised up? 
6'12. Describe to me the short life and character of Ed- 
ward VI. ? 

613. In whom did Mary find a kindred spirit ? 

614. What means did she take to suppress the Reform- 

ation ? 

615. Whom did she marry ? 

616. What cause of offence did the English give Philip ? 

617. At this period, what remained to England of all the 

conquests in France ? 
6l 8, Was Calais retained ? 

619. What were the first acts of Elizabeth on coming to 

the throne ? 

620. Did she find any difficulty ? 

621. What was the origin of Elizabeth's dislike to Mary 

of Scotland ? 

622. Do you consider Elizabeth a great character ? 

623. What were her principal faults ? 

624. How did Lord Burleigh speak of her ? 

625. What was the great secret of Elizabeth's success ? 

626. Was her age happy ? 

627. What were the stains on her character, and what the 

pearls in her crown ? 

628. What were the claims of James I. to the throne of 

England ? 

629. What was the leading feature in his character ? 

630. What the first desire of his heart ? 

631. How would you describe his reign ? 

632. What new plan did he take for raising money ? 

633. Did Charles I. inherit the opinions of his father ? 

634. What were the manners and temper of Charles ? 

635 . What made his government unpopular ? 

636. Do you consider he was an arbitrary man ? 



256 EXERCISES IN 

637. In what acts was his character manifest ? 

638. How did he act by the Scots ? 

639. Can any fault in a king be an excuse for his murder ? 

640. Are historians agreed as to the character of Crom- 

well ? 

641. By what authority was Charles condemned and exe- 

cuted ? 

642. What were the peculiar characteristics of Cromwell ? 

643. Was he a happy man ? 

644. Who succeeded in bringing the Stuarts back ? 

645. Was Charles II. well received ? 

646. What can you relate of his previous adventures ? 

647. In what manner did Charles II. govern his kingdom ? 

648. What romantic tale is connected with his marriage ? 

649. Did he profit by the fate of his father ? 

650. What did the Commons refuse? 

651. What measures did Charles then adopt? 

652. How would you describe his reign ? 

653. Was James II. an improvement on his father and 

brother ? 

654. What was his great aim ? 

655. What did his conduct prove ? 

656. What steps were taken by the people ? 

657. Who was William ? 

658. Was any resistance offered to this revolution ? 

659. What precautions were taken to prevent a recurrence 

of former evils ? 

660. What was the fate of James ? 

661. Can you relate the occurrences in Ireland? 

662. By what was the reign of William and Mary dis- 

tinguished ? 

663. Who was Anne, and what her claim to the throne ? 

664. By what was the administration of Anne distin- 

guished ? 

665. In what wars was she engaged ? 

666. Does any monument still exist of her gratitude to 

her officers ? 

667. Who were the popular characters of this reign ? 

668. What was the great event of this reign ? 

669. How would you designate the reign of Anne ? 

670. Did the country flourish under her administration ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 257 

6?1. By what claim and descent did George I. ascend the 
throne ? 

672. Do you think he was a patriotic king of England? 

673. How was his reign disturbed ? 

6*74. Who was the Pretender, and who supported his 
claim ? 

675. Do you think he ever had a reasonable prospect of 

success ? 

676. Relate all you recollect of his history and claims. 

677. What can you tell me of Lord Orford ? 

678. What lesson had the British monarchs learned ? 

679. How was Hanover governed at this period ? 

680. Who was Charles Edward ? 

681. Relate all you know respecting him. 

682. By what was this reign disturbed ? 

683. What did the English to assist the French in Ame- 

rica ? 

684. Did any change in the style take place ? 

685. Who was George III. ? 

686. In what way did he obtain the good-will of his 

subjects on first coming to the throne ? 

687. In what state did George III. find his kingdom ? 

688. What produced the American war? 

689. Did any remarkable events take place in 1780? 

690. Who was Hyder Ally ? 

691. Who was Mr. Pitt? 

692. What was his first act on coming into power ? 

693. What was the result of the American war ? 

6Q4>. What circumstances now began to agitate England? 

695* When did England take up arms against France ? 

696. Who was Napoleon Bonaparte ? 

697« Who were his principal officers ? 

698. What English officers contended with them? 

699- With what countries was England engaged in war ? 

700. What was the result of this war ? 

701. What was the state of George III. during his latter 

years ? 

702. How long was England governed by a regency ? 

703. What particular circumstances marked the regency ? 

704. What circumstances attended the coronation of 

George IV. ? 



258 EXEKCISES IX 

705. What remarkable acts passed this year ? 

706. What was the character of William IV. ? 

707. Did he make any great change in the constitution ? 

708. What passed respecting slavery ? 
70,9. What was the state of Ireland ? 

710. Describe this reign ? 

711. Who was Alexandrina Victoria? 

712. What were the feelings of the people on her accession 

to the throne ? 

713. Whom did she marry ? 

714. What has disturbed her reign ? 

715. What has occurred in India? 

716. State the principal battles? 

717. What has occurred in China ? 

7 18. What were the consequences ? 

719. What is the state of Ireland ? 

720. Does Scotland claim high antiquity ? 

721. In the time of Adrian what were her territories ? 

722. Who were Malcolm, Macbeth, and Duncan ? 

723. When does Scotlanl first become an ally of Eng- 

land? 

724. Did she take any part in the quarrel between John 

and his barons ? 

725. Who was the maiden of Norway ? 

726. Who were John Baliol and David Bruce, and from 

whom descended ? 

727. Who was William Wallace ? 

728. Relate all you know concerning him ? 

729. Who was David II. ? 

730. What circumstances can you relate of him ? 

731. Who was first of the family of Stuart ? 

732. Who was the Duke of Albany ? 

733. What young prince was detained and educated in 

England ? 

734. Was the feudal system prevalent in Scotland ? 

735. Who was James II.? 

736. What promise did the early part of his reign hold 

out? 

737. Have regencies been injurious to Scotland? 

738. Relate what you know of James III. ? 

739. What marriage led to a union between England anfl 

Scotland ? 



UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 259 

740. Was James V. a patriotic king ? 

741. Who was Mary of Guise, and who married her? 

742. What brought Mary Queen of Scots from France ? 

743. Relate what you know of her history. 

744. Who was James VI. ? 

745. What circumstances gave him possession of the Eng- 

lish throne ? 

746. Do the Irish make any pretence to a remote an- 

tiquity ? 

747. What is the first knowledge we have of them ? 

748. At what period were they called an island of saints ? 

749. In what state were they when Henry subdued them? 

750. Have they been a valuable appendage to the throne 

of England ? 

751. Who confirmed the British dominion in that island? 

752. AVhat did James I. for them ? 

753. What is the history of Ireland for the last century ? 

754. What disaffected spirits have disturbed it ? 

755. What privileges have been granted them ? 

756. What appears to be the only cure for their evils ? 

757. What part of America was first discovered, and by 

whom ? 

758. In what state did the Spaniards find Mexico and 

Peru ? 

759. What feature marked the Spanish conquests ? 
7t»0. What was the effect to Spain of these conquests ? 

761. What discoveries were made by Sebastian Cabot ? 

762. How and by whom was North America colonized ? 

763. To what particular description of people did it offer 

a refuge ? 

764. When did they declare themselves independent of 

the mother country ? 

765. What peculiar qualities did they display during the 

war ? 

766. What government did they establish ? 
76'7. Of how many states does America consist ? 

768. To whom does Canada belong? 

769. Is it valuable ? 

770. Under what chief did the Spanish colonies declare 

their independence ? 

771. Were the people prepared for independence? 



260 EXERCISES IN UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

772. What have been the features of the republic ? 

773. Who was the Emperor of Brazil ? 

774. Relate all you know about him and his family. 

775. What is the religion of these states ? 

776. Are other Christians tolerated ? 

777* Are they all allowed to build places of worship ? 



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CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



In the annexed Chronology the vowels a, e, i, o, u, repre- 
sent 1, 2, 3, 4s, 5 ; the diphthong au 6, oi 7, ei S,ou9: b stands 
for 1, d for 2, t for 3, f for 4, I for 5 } s for 6, p for 7, k for 8, 
n for 9« 

The diphthongs stand for one figure only, y and ss stand for 
0., and g for two Os. Pronounce y as w, to distinguish it from 
i: thus kyt (803), pronounce kwit. 

After a. i). 999* there are no letters in the abbreviation to 
express 1000, it being understood thus — ap stands for 1017- 



c. 



4004. Creation of the World according to the 1 ^ , , 

Hebrew Scripture Text . J Crea. heb. ogo. 

5872. According to the Septuagint Version . Crea. sep. leipe. 

4700. According to the Samaritan Version . Crea. sam. foig. 

2348. Universal or Mosaic Deluge . . Deluge — etok. 

2247. The Building of Babel ; Dispersion of \ „ , , 

Mankind ; Confusion of Language. J * ' e °P" 

2219. The Assyrian Monarchy founded, and! A , 

Nineveh built by Assur . . ] Ass * m ' edan ' 

2217. The Babylonish Monarchy founded by i „ ' , 

Nimrod ... . .j Bab - In « ed °P- 

2188. Menes or Misraim founds the Egyp-"1 ,-, , , . 

tian Monarchy . . . . ) E ^ m. dakk. 

2084. Egypt governed by the Shepherd Kings Shep. Egy. byko. 
2040. Moeris was King of Thebes and Mem- 7 „ , T 

phis ..... .j E «y- Moer - b y f y- 

1996. The Birth of Abraham . . . Abram. b.. anous. 

1897. Sodom and Gomorrali destroyed . S. & G. burnt akoup. 

1874. Shepherd Kings expelled from Egypt. Shep. driven akoif. 
1856. The Kingdom of Argos in Greece"! . ., . 

founded by Inachus . . . ] Ar S os f ' akus ' 

1836. Jacob and Esau born . . J.&E. born akis. 



262 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. B. C. 

1825. The Shepherd Kings abandon Egypt . Shep. go akel. 
1796. The Deluge of Gyges in Africa . Del. Gyg. apous. 

1722. Sesostris made King of Egypt . Ses. Egy. aped. 

1571. Moses was born in Egypt . Moses born aloib. 

1556. The Kingdom of Athens founded by 1 Cec Af alug 

Cecrops . . • • -J 
1529. The Deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly. Del. Deu. alen. 
1522. The Amphyctionic Council instituted; Amp. con. bled. 
1520. Corinth built .... Cor. built bley. 

J 493. Cadmus introduced the Letters of the 1 ^ B c a fout. 

Alphabet into Greece . • • ) 
1491. The Israelites brought out of Egypt ) Jewg ^ afoub 

by Moses S 

1453. The Olympic Games celebrated in 1 Q1 ^ bok 

Greece ) 

1452. The Five Books of the Pentateuch } ^.^ bo[ ^ 

written ) 

1450. Death of Moses ; Joshua leads the Is- ) 

raelites into Canaan . • . } 

1425. Israel governed by Judges 
1322. Belus reigns in Babylon 
1267. Ninus reigns over Assyria 
1252. Tyre, the Capital of Phoenicia, built . 
1225. Thebes besieged .... 

1215. Semiramis was Queen of Babylon 
1202. Salamis built by Teucer 
1 1 93. Commencement of the Trojan War . 
1184. Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks . 
1079. Saul chosen King of Israel, 1046 ; the ) 

Rebellion of Absalom . . . y 

1069. Codrus, King of Athens, devotes his ) Co(Jrus At b 

Life for his Country . . . y 
1055. David made King of Israel; and the ) David kino . a ]u 

Dedication of Solomon's Temple . ) 
980. The Separation of the Ten Tribes of \ Ten vQ neiz 

Israel from Judah . . . ) 

970. Jeroboam introduced Idolatry, and set \ j eTQ -^^ nQ ^ 

up Idols . . . . . ) 

The Prophet Elijah prophesied at this { EHj - ah proph< _ 

period .....) 

904. Jerusalem plundered by the Philistines Holy Phil. nyf. 
886. The Poems of Homer brought out of) Hom> fetch jj e i s 

Greece . . • .3 

869. Carthage built by Dido . . . Car. built kaun 

837. Lycurgus legislates for Sparta . . Lycur. laws kip. 

820. Nineveh taken by Arbaces, and the } Nin> jlt key 

Assyrian Monarchy destroyed . y 
116. The First Olympiad . . . Count, olym. pois. 



Moses dies 


boly. 


Jews 


l'udg. 


afel. 


Bel. 


Bab. 


ated. 


Nin. 


Ass. 


adaup. 


Tyre 


built 


adud. 


Thebes bes. 


adel. 


Semi. 


Bab. 


adal. 


Sal. 


built 


beyd. 


War 


Troy 


bant. 


Troy 


burnt 


abeif. 


Saul 


king 


bypou, 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 263 



c. 



769. Syracuse built ; the Prophets Isaiah, ) § rac f 

Hosea. and Joel prophesied • 3 * 

753. Rome founded by Romulus . . Rome f. put. 

725. Hezekiah, Tenth King of Judah . Hezek. Judah pel. 
719. Shalmaneser destroyed the Cities of"l 

Samaria, and carried the seven Tribes I o, „ -i. 

into Captivity, which ends the j F 

Kingdom of Israel . . .J 

715. Numa Pompilius, Second King of) Num& Rome 

Rome ) J 

703. Corcyra founded .... Corey, f. pyt. 

696. The Reign of Manasseh, Sixteenth ) ^ r T , , 

x » T j ' . J- Manass. Judah sous. 

King of Judah, commenced . ) 

681. The Assyrians, under Esarhaddon, in-"j 

vaded Judaea, led Manasseh a pri- I Ass. and Bab. seib. 

soner to Babylon, and united the j Manass. prison, seib. 

Kingdoms of Assyria and Babylon . J 

672. Tullus Hostilius, Third King of Rome Tull. Rome soid. 

667. The Combat between the Horatii and ) „ . „£ . . 

~ . ... J-H.&L.nght saup. 

Cunatii .... 3 r 

The Prophet Isaiah martyred . . Isaiah killed — 

658. Pausanias, King of Sparta, founds By- \ „ ~ , 

zantium . . . • 3 

Phrartis, King of India . . . Phrartis k. — 

640. Ancus Martius, Fourth King of Rome A.M. Rome soz. 
639. The great Passover held bv Joash, ) T , 

King of Judah . * . j Joash pasS ' Sin 

624. Draco, Legislator of Athens . . Draco — sef. 

616. Tarquinius Priscus, Fifth King of Rome Tar. P.Rome sas. 

608. Josiah killed in Battle with Pharaoh ) T . , ... , , 

Necho . . m . . .| Josi - kllled s >' k - 

Habbakkuk and Jeremiah prophesied ) Hab. pro- — 

at this time . . . ) & J. phecy 

605. The Commencement of the Jewish Cap- 1 T , , 

tivity under Nebuchadnezzar . ) ^ • 
602. Nebuchadnezzar destroys Jerusalem and ) 

the Temple, and leads the Jews to > Temple burnt syd. 

Babylon . . . . ) 

601. Nineveh taken by Nebuchadnezzar;)-^, ^. , 

End of the Assyrian Empire ) ' ' " 

599. Cyrus the Great born . . . Cyrus born loun. 

594. Solon, Legislator of Athens . . Solon — louf. 

578. Servius Tullius, Sixth King of Rome Serv.T.Rome loik. 

572. Nebuchadnezzar invaded Egypt ; be- ) m A . ■> • • 

i j . i rp bjtr t i Tyre taicen loid. 

sieged and took 1 yre . ) J 

551. Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher, ) ~ c . . . 

, V Conf. born lub. 

born . . . ) 

537. Cyrus besieged and took Babylon;) „ . , ,. 

thus ends the second great Monarchy y * ' 



264 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



B. C. B. C. 

536. Cyrus ascends the Throne of Persia and "] 

ends the Jewish Captivity, which I Cyrus reigns lis. 

had lasted seventy Years . . J 
Daniel prophesies .... Dan. writes len. 
529. Cyrus died, and was succeeded by 7 ^ g ^- es 

Cambyses, who died . . • 3 

522. And was succeeded by Darius . Dar. reigns led. 

516. The second Temple at Jerusalem 7 T k don£ ^ 

finished ..... 3 
510. The Pisistratidas expelled from" Athens Pisis. ban. uby. 
509. The kingly Government abolished in \ N j. , 

Rome S § y * 

504. Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians Sardis burnt lyf. 
498. Lartius created Dictator at Rome . Die. Rome fouk. 
490, The Battle of Marathon . . . Mar. batt. ony 

486. Xerxes succeeds Darius on the Throne 7 -^ re i«rns feis 

of Persia . . . } • - 

485. Coriolanus banished from Rome . Corio. exile feil. 
483. Aristides banished from Athens . Arist. exile feit. 

480. Leonidas and his Spartans fall at Ther- 7 q, twQ ^ 

mopylae . . . . .3 

The Greeks gain a naval Victory at 7 Greekg . _ 

Salamis over the Persians . 3 

479. Victoriesof PlataeaandMycale; Xerxes 7 Xerxes flees foiu 

leaves Greece . . . . 3 
470. The Persians defeated by Cimou, Son 7 a con 

ofMiltiades . . . . $ H )i 

469. Capua founded by the Tuscans . Capua built faun. 

463. Egypt revolts from the Persians . Egy. rebel, faut. 

452. The two Books of Chronicles written > Ezm ^-^ fud 

by Ezra . . . . y 

Creation of the Decemviri at Rome ; 7 Dec Rome ^ 

Laws of the Twelve lables . ) 
431. Peloponnesian War begins ; great": 

Plague at Athens; Old Testament I War plag. end. — 

ends . . . • - .J 

423. Darius Nothus, King of Persia . D.N. king fet. 

413. Egypt throws off Allegiance'to Persia Egy. free fat. 
412. Athens governed by a Council of Four 7 Atheng m fed# 

Hundred ..... 3 
404. End of the Peloponnesian War. . Pelop. over fyf. 

403. Athens taken by Lysander ; Govern- 7 Athem troub]f t 

ment of the Thirty lyrants . 3 
401. Retreat of the Ten Thousand . . Greeks retreat fyb. 

Thrasybulus delivers Athens from the 7 Athens f ree _ 

Thirty Tyrants . . * 3 

385. Rome taken by the Gauls under Bren- 7 Rome taken ^ 

nus ..... 3 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 265 



c. 



385. About this Time died Thucydides and 1 r™ v 

Xenophon, Historians . . \ ^^ & Xen " tol - 
382 The Citadel of Thebes taken by the ) ™ . 

Spartans . . ,.,..•'. J ™ ebestrou M. teid. 

380. Thebes delivered by Epaminondas . Sara. Epam. teiz. 

371. Battle of Leuctra .... Leuc. batt. toib. 

363. Battle of Mantinea . . . Manti. batt. taut. 

362. Curtius leaped into the Gulph near the > ~ ,„ 

Forum . . . . . \ Curtl ' S ulf ' taud - 

356. Alexander the Great born . . Alex, born tus. 

348. Plato the Philosopher died . . Plato dies tok. 
346. Philip of Macedon became a member ) Dn 

of the Amphictyonic Council . \ PhlL wlse tos ' 

343. The War between the Romans and ) „ 

Samnites j Rome & Sam. tot. 

340. The Carthagenians defeated near Agri- > „ n 

gentum . . . . . } Car ' sad to 7- 

338. Battle of Cheronaea .... Cheron. batt. tik. 
336. Alexander becomes King of Macedon, 1 A1 ,. 

and destroys Thebes . . .3 Alex ' km S tls - 
335. Darius Codomanus is King of Persia . D.C. Persia til. 
334. Alexander defeats the Persians at the ) A1 „ 

Granicus \ Alex ' Gram ' tlf - 

333. defeats them at Issus . Alex. Issus tii. 

332. conquers Egypt and takes } ^ ~ 

Tyre . . . . # [ %y. & Tyre tid. 

331. defeats Darius at Arbela . Alex. Arbela tib. 

330. Darius Codomanus killed: with him V -p. _ 

ends the Persian Empire . . \ DL - dies tlz - 

Alexander takes possession of Susa, and 7 

burns the Palace of Persepolis . \ leX * at SuSa tlz " 
328. Passes into India; defeats Porus; pene- 
trates to the Ganges; returns by the 

Indus to the Euphrates, and in 324 

is killed at Babylon in a fit of in- 

temperence, in the thirty-third year I 

of his age ! 

321. The Romans made to pass under the 7 „ 

Yoke by the Samnites . . \ Rome D0WS teb - 

320. Ptolemy Lagus carries 100,000 Jews j _ 

captive into Egypt . . .\ Jews E SY- tey. 

303. The Freedom of the Greek Tribes re- ) „ c 

stored by Demetrius . . .3 Greece free lzt - 

301. Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia . . Ipsus batt. tyb. 

300. Antioch founded by Seleucus . . Antioch f. ig. 

298. Demetrius Poliorcetes takes Athens . Demet. Ath. douk. 
284. Ptolemy Philadelphus King of Egypt P.P. Egy. deif. 



Alex. Porus tek. 



266 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. B. C. 

283. The Alexandrian Library formed . Alex, books deit. 
280. Italy invaded by Pyrrhns, King of 1 p fa j , 

Epirus . . . . . 3 J 
277. The Septuagint translated . . Sep. same doip. 

The Carthagenians totally defeated in ) Car> ]eaye j. 

Sicily ; evacuate Italy . . 3 

264. First Punic War begins . . . . Punic war dauf. 
255. Regulus defeated and taken Prisoner > ^ ™ v j i 

by the Carthagenians , . . . 3 " & • 

253. Manasseh chosen High Priest by the ) Jewg . gt dot 

Jews . . . . .3 v 

241. End of the first Punic War . . Punic ends dob. 

235. The Temple of Janus shut for the first 1 ™ 1 1 r d'l 

time since the Reign of Numa .3 " 

218. Second Punic War commenced . Punic sec. dak. 

216. Hannibal gains the Battle of Cannas Cannasbatt. das. 
212. Syracuse taken by Marcellus after a ) g dad> 

Siege 01 two years ... • 3 

211. Antiochus conquers Judea . . Antio. Judea dab. 

210. The Scipios conquer Asdrubal, and 7 «. • ■ c • a 

take New Carthage in Spain . 3 *' 

203. Hannibal recalled to Africa ? . . Hanni. returns dyt. 

20L R ^ i e oleadsS yP haxintriumpht °|Syph. Rome dya. 

196. The Battle of Zama ends the second I ^^ h ^ bous 

Punic War . . . .3 

190. The Romans enter Asia . .In Asia any. 

173. War between Rome and Macedon . Rome & Mac. apt. 

170. Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plun- 1 . ,. , 

, T 1 c Antio. robs apy. 

ders Jerusalem .... 3 rj 

167 Perseus of Macedon defeated ; End 1 Mace endg 

of the Kingdom of Macedon . •) 
166. Judas Maccabeus expels the Syrians \ j ^ J u dea ba 

from Judea . . . 3 

150. The third Punic War commenced . Punic ter. buy. 
146. Corinth taken by Mummius . . Cori. Mum. bos. 

145. Carthage taken and totally destroyed ) ,, ~ • , 1 

r t-. f ^- ar - nnis bol. 

by the Romans . . . .3 

135. Antiochus besieges Jerusalem ; the \ „ , s i e s-e bil 

Apochrypha ends . . . \ 

133. Tiberius Gracchus murdered . . Tib. killed att. 

131. Caius Gracchus murdered . . C. G. killed ata. 

111. The Beginning of the Jugurthine War Jug. war bab. 

109. Samaria utterly destroyed by Hyr- ) gam< dead , 

canus . . . . .3 ' 

108. Jugurtha defeated by Maiius . Jug. broken byk. 

103. Jugurtha starved to death at Rome . Jug. dies byt. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 267 

B- C B. C. 

90. Sylla defeats the Samnites and their ) c ,, 

"Allies { S > rlla W ^ 

88. Civil War between Marius and Sylla: ) c rt a nr • i • 

Sylla takes possession of Rome . J S y lla& Marius ke1 ' 
86. Sylla defeats Mithridates, King of} c „ -, , 

Pontus . ... .{ S ' vlla Pont ^kau. 

82. Sylla perpetual Dictator; his enor- } c ,, , 

J rK U ' f Sylla great ke. 

mous Cruelties . . . y J ° 

78. Lays down his Power, and dies .. Sylla dies pei. 

72. Pontus reduced to a Roman province Pont, taken oid. 

Hyrcanus High Priest of the Jews. . Hyrca. priest pe. 

69. Hyrcanus made King, but dethroned > H t « 

by his brother Aristobulus . jj v • & ou ' 

Crassus and Pompey chosen Roman ) Crassus and 

Consuls \ Pompey 

63. Pompey takes Jerusalem, and restores T 

Hyrcanus to the Government of j- P. does much aut. 

Judea . .. . .J 

62. Conspiracy of Cataline . . Sly Cat se. 

59. Pompev, Crassus, and Caesar form the 7 -o n n * • i 

C T.K. / ! t P.C.C.tnum. lou. 

nrst Iriumvirate . . . 5 

58. Cicero banished . . . Cice. driven lei. 

54. Caesar invades Britain . . Caesar Britain lo. 

49. Caesar passes the Rubicon . . Caesar cross fou. 

48. Battle of Pharsalia ; Pompey defeated Pharsa.batt. fei. 

Pompey killed in Egypt . . Pom. killed fei. 

The Alexandrian Library, containing > „ . , ._ _ . 
*™™ n i i I f Books burnt feu 

400,000 volumes,, burnt . . > 

45. Julius Caesar reforms the Kalendar, the T 

Solar Year introduced instead of the l Solar year ol. 

Lunar . . . J 

44. Julius Caesar killed in the Senate . J. Csr. killed of. 
43. Second Triumvirate, founded by Oc- \ ™ • 

tavius, Mark Antony^ and Lepidus ) 

40. Herod made Governor of Judea . Herod Jud. fy. 

31. Battle of Actium : End of the Com- > . . . _ ., 
,., \ Act. batt. lb. 

monwealth . . . ) 

Cleopatra and Mark Antony died . Cleo. & Mark — 

30. Alexandria taken by Octavius . Octa. Alex. ty. 

27. Octavius receives the Title of Augustus Octa. emp. ep. 

25. Cornelius Nepos, Historian, died . C.Nps.dies el. 

10. The Temple of Janus shut . Peace by 

8. The Kalendar corrected by Augustus Augts. corre. k. 

4. Jesus Christ born four Years before the 7 Jesus Christ 7 n 

Vulgar Era . . . £ born £ 



N 2 



268 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



D. 



5. Dionysius and Titus Livius, Historians, } 
flourished . . . f 

14. Tiberius made Emperor of Rome 
1 9. The Jews banished from Rome 

26. John the Baptist preaches 

27. Pilate made Governor of Judea 

32. John Baptist beheaded 

33. Jesus Christ our Redeemer crucified 
35. The Conversion of St. Paul 
39. St. Matthew writes his Gospel 
41. Herod persecutes the Christians; im- ) 

prisons Paul . . . ) 

43. Claudius made an Attempt on Britain 

44. St. Mark writes his Gospel . 

45. Vespasian visited Britain 

50. St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus, 

at Athens 

51. The British King, Caractacus, carried ) 

prisoner to Rome . . y 

54. Nero made Emperor of Rome 

55. poisoned Britannicus 

59 ' "deX ^^ MOth6r ' Agrlppina ' *°}a parricide un. 

64. cruelly persecutes the Christians — persecutes auf. 

causes Rome to be set on fire . — burns — 

67. Massacre of the Jews by Florus, at ) T . 

,-, ni _ , . j A1 j • f Jews troub. aup. 

Cassarea, Ptolemais, and Alexandria ) r 

St. Peter and St. Paul put to death . Peter & Paul — 

Josephus, the Jewish Historian, made ) T 

(jovernor or (jalilee . . \ * 



Two 


histori. 


1. 


Tib. 


emp. 


af. 


Jews 


exp. 


an. 


John 


preach 


es. 


Pilate 


Jud. 


ep. 


John 


decap. 


id. 


J. C. 


cruci. 


it. 


Saul 


chang. 


il. 


Matt. 


writes 


in. 


Herod furious 


ob. 


Claud. 


. Brit. 


ot. 


Mark 


writes 


of. 


Ves. 


comes 


fo. 


Paul at Ath. 


uz. 


Carac. 


at Rome 1 


Nero 





lo. 


A 


brute 


11. 



68 & 69. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, bad , 

emp. sei. 



sou. 



pel. 



d? Ba 
Emperors of Rome . . . y 

70. Vespasian made Emperor ; and his ) „ i ^ • 

son, Titus, destroyed Jerusalem . $ ? ^ 

78. A dreadful Pestilence at Rome, 10,000 )p, R 

dying in one day . • 3 °* 

79. Scotland invaded by the Romans . Scot. Rome pou. 

Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed ) u o d i • i 
v t- c hi i. -tr • J-H.&P. buried — 

by an Erruption or Mount Vesuvius ) 

Pliny, the Elder, venturing too near ) p.. _ 

the burning Lava, was suffocated . ) ' 

80. Agricola makes Conquests in Britain . Agric. comes ky. 
93. Josephus died . . . Jos. dies out. 
95. The Christians suffer dreadful Perse- ) ^^ troub> ^ 

cution . . . ) 

St. John writes the Apocalypse, in ba- ) y , p 
nishment, at Patmos 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 269 

-A.- D. A. D. 

98. Trajan made Emperor of Rome, and 7 ^, Rome n " 

forbids Christian Assemblies . 3 

107. Trajan obtains great Victories in the 7 Tr£u lu , . 

115. The Jews in C^ene murder 200,000 ) Jewg ^ ^ 

Greeks and Romans . . 3 

120. A Wall built by Adrian across the 7 . ,. . 

Island of Britain . . $ 

Plutarch died . . . Plu. dies — 



bid. 



132. Adrian published his perpetual Code 7 . , . , 

of Laws . . . . .3 

135. The Romans overrun Judea, and de- 7 T A ,., 

j ^o^ ™^ t r Judea overrun bil. 

stroyed 580,000 Jews . . . ) 

137. Jerusalem rebuilt by Adrian, and 7 „ i 1 m.i,- 

called CElia Capitolina . .\ Uo1 * **"*>* 

154. An Apology for the Christians pub- 7 j^ defendsbuf - 

hshed by Justin Martyr . . 3 
167. The Martyrdom of Polycarp and 7 polyc ^ . 

Pionices in Asia ....)" r 

177. The Christians persecuted at Lyons . C. troub. again boip. 
189. The Romans defeated by the Sara-"] 

cens : this their first mention in J- Sarac. rise bein. 

History . . . . .J 

193. Didius Julianus purchases the Roman 7 Rome boughtbout 

Severus declared Emperor of Rome . Sev. erap. — 
195. besieges and takes Byzantium Takes Byzan. anu. 

208. Severus and his Sons, Caracalla and 7 y. . t> -. j * 

Geta, visit Britain ... 3 • >' • 

209. The Picts and Scots repulsed, and al 

Wall built by Severus between the > Picts driven dyn. 

Rivers Forth and Clyde . . J 

220. Diogenes Laertes died ... Dio. L. dies dey. 
222. A Tribute paid by the Romans to the 7 „ 1 j 

Goths . . . . . S PayS 

226. The Persians totally defeated by the 7 p _, 

Romans 3 4* 

236. A severe Persecution of the Christians C. again sad dis. 
244. Philip the Arabian made Emperor of 7 p, ., . , , ~ 

Rome 3 

St. Cyprian elected Bishop of Car- ) p ^ 

thage ^ yP- 

249. Decius, a persecutor of the Christians, 7 wicked Bqc[ don 

made Emperor of Rome . . 3 

259. The Persians ravage Syria . . Pers. in Syr. dun. 

260. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus 7 Dian burng 

burnt ...... S 

111. The Ale manni and Marcomanni ravage 7 E ravao . 

the Roman Empire . . . ) v ' e " l 

- N 3 



270 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. D. 



273. Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, defeated") 

by Aurelian, and carried Captive to V Zen. taken epi. 

Rome . • • • J . 

283. Fingall, King of Morven, dies . . Fin. dies eki. 
286. Rome attacked^by the northern Na- 7 Rome attac beis# 

tions . . . • • «3 

Longinus, Secretary to Zenobia, died Zen. sec. — 
292. The Roman Empire partitioned be-~| 

tween two Emperors and two VTwo emp. ene. 

Csesars . • • • -J 

312. Constantine the Great succeeded to"| _ 

the whole Roman Empire, and em- V Cons, chris. tad. 

braced the Christian Religion . J 
325. First General Council at Nice, the Doc- \ Nice CQun tel> 

trines of Arius condemned J 

329. Constantine removes the Seat of Em- 7 Goe§ East ten> 

pire to Constantinople. . • } ... 

337. Constantine dies ; the Empire divided Emp. divi. tip. 
361. Julian, called the Apostate, abjures \ JuJL apost> isa> 

Christianity . . . • 3 

378. The Goths advance to the Gates of 7 Goth3 Const, ipei. 

Constantinople . . • • 3 

379. Theodosius the Great, Emperor of the 7 Theod> East tom> 

East 3 

383. The Huns overrun Mesopotamia . Huns Mes. teit. 
About this period lived Eusebius and 7 Euse & Eutro# _ 

Eutropius, Historians . . • 3 
395. The Sons of Theodosius succeed to"! 

the East and West Empires ; Ar- l Arc# & Honor, toul. 

cadius Emperor of the East, and j 

Honorius of the West . . .J 

400. Italy ravaged by Alaric the Goth . Alaric ravag. og. 

403. Alaric defeated near Pollentia . . Alaric bends fyt. 

404. Fergus, King of Scotland, began to 7 Ferg> gcot> fyf# 

reism . . • • • • 3 
406. The Vandals invade France and Spain Vand. invade fys. 
410. Rome sacked and burnt by Alaric . Rome scourged fay. 
416. The Bishops of Africa condemned the 7 Mitres condemn fas. 

Pelagian Heresy . • -3 

420. Pharamond, first King of the Franks, 7 p hara F ran ks ody. 

commenced his Reign . 3 

424. Valentinian III. made Emperor of I yalent. West odo. 

the West 3 , 

426. The Romans finally leave Britain . Rom. leave ods. 
431. The Third General Council held at 7 Coun Ephe ota 

Ephesus ...... j 

Pelagius the Heretic died . . Pelag. dies — 

439. The Vandals invade and plunder Italy Vand. Italy fin. 

The Vandals take Carthage, and esta- 7 T&ke Car _ 

blish a Kingdom in Africa . . ) 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 271 



445. The Britons seek Aid from the Romans ~) „ .. , c , 

> Brit, entreats fol. 



a. n. • a. D. 

ie Britons seek Aid from the ] 
against the Picts and Scots 
448. The Romans pay a heavy Tribute to 1 R AftM f t 

Attila . . ... .y ome la ° 

450. Attila ravages Germany and France . Attila G. & F. oly. 

451. Theodric, King of the Visigoths, killed ) „« , -,i j i 

in battle . . ! . . \ ^^ kllled ° la ' 

The Saxons land in Britain under ? -o ^ 

„ • . . n > Sax. Brit. — 

Hengist and Horsa . . . } 

The Fourth General Council held at ) r-, r>* ^ 

Chalcedon \ CoUn - ChaL ~ 

452. Foundation of the City of Venice . Venice f. old. 

455. Rome taken and plundered by Gen- ~) ^ ^ c 1 

■ 4.U- xt o 1 r Rome Gens. ful. 

seric the Vandal . . . . ) 

468. The Visigoths drive the Romans out ? T7 . • ,. . , r , 
n s *? > Visi. disturb fauk. 

470. The Kingdom of Sussex founded by \ p,,, ~ 

Ella, who defeats the British Princes ) ' ' ™* 

472. An Eruption of Mount Vesuvius seen ) v , .1 

from Constantinople . . . y ^ 

476. Ro ^^aken by Odoacer, now King ) Qdoa king opau> 

The Western Empire extinguished, i 

507 Years after the Battle of Actium, I West, ends — 

1224 after the Building of Rome . J 

488. Theodric the Ostrogoth acknowledged ~) ~,, n > ■, 

-tr- c Ti 1 u iL -o rP r Theo. Zeno o^k. 

King 01 Italy by the Empei-or Zeno y 

490. Ireland, famous for its Schools and 1 y • ^ 1 

Learning, called the Isle of Saints ) ' ^ *' 

491. St. Patrick, Patron of Ireland, dies . St. P. dies ona. 

497. Clovis, King of Franks, converted to ) ^ . , 1 

r,. ' s K r Clovis changed onoi. 

Christianity . ) ■ & 

500. The Burgundians become tributary to ) „ 

clovis . . . . . . \ Bur 8- p a y u s- 

507. Clovis defeats Alaric the Visigoth . Clovis gains lyp. 

510. Clovis makes Paris the Capital of the } -p. • . • e 1 

Tr* j • *• t* ' t r Jr/aris cniet lay. 

Kingdom ot b ranks . ) J 

51U Clovis died, and the Kingdom was di- ) m • j- it. 

. , , , ' 1 • c r Clovis dies lab. 

vided between his Sons . . ) 

515. Arthur, King of the Britons, supposed ) ArthurBrit laL 

to have begun his Reign . . ) 

516. Time computed by the Christian Era Anno D. las. 

525. Antioch and other Cities destroved by ~) A ^. , , , 

^ ., , J 5- Anti. quakes lei. 

an Earthquake ....... 3 ^ 

532. Cosroes succeeds to the Throne of Persia Cos. Pers. lid. 

A great Insurrection at Constantinople } „ , .. . 

subdued by Belisarius . . ) 

537. Belisarius subdues the Ostrogoths in! 

Italy, and takes Rome, but refuses L Bel. refuses lip. 

the Crown . . . . .J 

» 4 



272 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. D. 

542. Belisarius takes Barbary,and makes it 7 g^ -g a ^ i od 

Part of Greece . . • • S 
550. The Kingdom of Poland established 7 p oL f uly< 

by Lechus • 3 

558. The Huns broke in upon Thrace ; de- 7 Bq[ opposes i u k. 

feated by Belisarius . • • } 

566. Narses invites the Lombards to invade 7 Nar j jQm laus 

Italy S 

568. In two Years they conquered that 7 Lom take lau k. 

Country . . • • 3 

571. Mahomet, the False Prophet, was born 7 Mah> born upa> 

at Mecca • 3 

580. About this time the Latin Tongue 7 Latifl dead uky> 

ceased to be spoken in Italy . . j 
590. Antioch, with 30,000ofits Inhabitants, 7 AntL sinks anVt 

destroyed by an Earthquake . J 

595. Gregory of Tours, the Historian, died Greg. his. loul. 

596. The Anglo-Saxons converted to Chris- } gax> c h an ged lous. 

tianity by Augustine the Monk . ) 
602. Focus, Emperor of the East, acknow- 7 Fqc d> 

ledges the Supremacy of the Popes \ 
605. The Monk Augustine died i_ .A monk dies syl. 
607. The Pantheon at Rome was dedicated 7 p an ]vj ar i a S yp. 

to God, the Virgin, and the Saints $ 
609. A dreadful Massacre of the Christians 7 c & j suffer syn. 

by the Jews . • ^ • • 3 

)thaire, King of France, introduc 

the Maires du Palais as Regents 

•usalem taken by the 

Cosroes the Second 

e Era of the Hegir 

Mahomet from Mecca to Medina 
625. The Persians, under Cosroes, besiege 7 Cog> Con# se j 

Constantinople . . • 3 

632. This Year the Prophet Mahomet died Mah. dies sid. 
636. Jerusalem taken by the Saracens, who 7 H , capt i ve s i s . 

kept possession of it 463 Years . 3 
640. In this Year the Library of Alexandria, 1 

which had been founded by Ptolemy [ Sarac> burn soy . 

Philadelphus, was burnt by the f 

Saracens . • •) 

648. The Saracens take Cyprus . . Sarac. Cyp. sok. 

653. The Saracens take Rhodes arid destroy 7 Giant# fa n s sut . 

the Colossus . • • • 3 

659. Nubia afforded an Asylum to the per- 7 Chris h j de sun# 

secuted Christians . . • ) ' 

669. The Saracens ravage Sicily . . Sara, ravage saun. 
672. They besiege Constantinople, but their 7 Sara> Con soid# 

Fleet is destroy ed by the Greeks $ 



613. Clothaire, King of France, introduced 7 ]vi a i res rxxle 

the Maires du Palais as Regents $ 
616. Jerusalem taken by the Persians under 7 Ho]y p er> sas# 

622. The Era of the Hegira or Flight of 7 Hegira __ sa d. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



273 



A. B. 

677. 



685. 

690. 
695. 

697. 
700. 
713. 
714. 
716. 
726. 



Fran. 



The Saracens attempt to land in Spain, ~| 

but are repulsed by the King of the I Try Spain soip. 
Visigoths . . . • .J 

The Saxons totally subdue Britain., and! 

the Britons retreat into Wales and I Sax. Hep. seil. 
Cornwall . . . . .J 

Pepin Heristel, Maire du Palais, ac- 
quires the chief Power in France 

Leontius, Emperor of the West, is de- 
throned, and mutilated by Tibe- I Tib. cruel soul, 
rius, Emperor of the East . . J 

Barbary subdued by the Mahomedan 1 Barb subdued g 
Arabs . . ... . S 

The Saracens defeated with great " 
Slaughter by Heracletus 



| Pep. 



Sarac. routed oig. 



Spain conquered by the Saracens under J Sarac> g . 

Muca . . . . . ) 

Charles Martel, Maire du Palais, go- j q jyj p ran pa £ 



Leo. East pas. 



732. 
736. 

740. 



742. 

749. 
751. 
754. 



Maire du Palais, go- 
verns all France for twenty-six Years 
Leo, the Isurian, is made Emperor of } 

the East $ 

Leo forbids the Worship of Images,"^ 

which causes a great Rebellion of his I 

subjects; they are supported by > Forbids images pes. 

Pope Gregory, who defended the J 

Practice . . . . .J 

Leo confiscates the Imperial Domains") 

of Sicily and Calabria, in order to I Leo angry — 

punish the Pope . . . .J 
Charles Martel defeats the Saracens . C. M. Sara. pid. 
Leo persecutes the Monks . . Leo monk oits. 

The Duchy of Spoletto seized by the" 

Normans, but recovered by the 

Pope 

Constantine, Emperor of the East, de- 
clares himself an enemy to Image 

and Saint Worship 
The Race of the Abassidse become 1 

Caliphs of the Saracens . . . ) 

Pepin le Bref, founder of the Carlo- \ p 

vingian Race . . . . ) 

Pope Stephen seeks Assistance from ) ~ , y ? 

Pepin against the Lombards . . ) ^ • P • 

Abdal Rahman takes the Title of King L, <, . _^ 

of Cordova, and founds the Domi- l * 

nion of Moors in Spain . . J 

John of Damascenus dies . . . J. of D. dies oisy. 
Almenzor builds Bagdad ; it becomes 7 chief d 

the Seat of Empire . ) ° * 

N 5 



- Spo. seized poy. 



► Cons, right pod. 



Sara. cali. pon. 



Carlo, pub. 



274 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. D. -A.D. 

767. The Turks ravage Asia Minor . . Turks A. S. paup. 
772. Charlemagne, sole Monarch of France, \ Ch ^ k{ .^ 

makes war against the Saxons . j " h F 

774. Charlemagne puts an end to the King- ) 

dom of the Lombards, which had > Lom. ended poif. 
existed 206 years . . . . ) 

775. A Battle fought between the Christians ~| 

and Moors at Roncesvalles, in I t> ]__ \r\\\ e A ^oii 

Spain, where Rolando their chief j * " 

was killed . . . . .J 

781. The Empress Irene restores the Wor-1 

ship of Images in the Eastern Em- J- Images East. peib. 

pire ....... J 

785. Charlemagne subdues the Saxons . Char. Sax. peil. 
787. The Danes first land in England . Danes Brit. peip. 
794. Charlemagne defeats and extirpates } ^^ jj ng fi 

the Huns . . . . . ) 

800. Charlemagne erects a new Empire in 1 

the West, and is cvowned Emperor J- Char. Emp. eig. 

at Rome . . . . -J 

Haroun Al Raschid, a powerful Caliph 1 

of the Saracens, seeks the Alliance of J- An ally — 

Charlemagne . . . .J 

814. Charlemagne dies, and is succeeded by } Char> dieg kaf 

Louis le Debonnaire ... 3 

816. The Eastern Empire ravaged by Earth- V Fire &death ^ 

quake, Famine, Conflagration, &c. ) 

817. Louis Je Debonnaire divides the Em- > j^. ^.^ ^ 

pire between his Sons . . .3 ' "" 

827. The seven Kingdoms of the Saxon Hep- 1 

tarchy united under Egbert, first > Sax. Hep. one kep. 

King of England . . .J 

834. A Battle between Egbert and the! 

Danes at Hengsdown Hill; the I g & jy anes j,-f 

Danes defeated with great Slaugh- j 

ter J 

838. Ethelwolf second King of England . Ethel. Engl. kik. 
845. The Normans plunder Hamburg and > N lund kol 

enter Germany . . . . ) I 

848. The Venetian Fleet destroyed by the \ Ve nice fleet kok. 

Saracens .....} 
851. Pope Joan died, having filled thel p Joandi ^ 

Papal Chair tor two years . . J 

867. The Danes overrun England. . . Danes Eng. kaup. 
872. Alfred the Great, King of England . Good Alf. eipe. 

879. The Kingdom of Aries begins . . Aries f. koin 

880. The Normans overrun France . . Nor. Fran. keiz. 

881. The University of Oxford founded by \ j-, . ^ , • 

Alfred .. . . . . $ 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 275 



887. The Normans besiege Paris, which "| Non Parig k . 

is defended by Count Eudes, who J- £ u( j" ^ F * 

becomes King of France . J 

890. Alfred divides England into Counties, 7 F « . . 

Hundreds, and Tithings . . J °* ° 1V1 - emy 

901. Edward the Elder succeeds Alfred as 7 -p, j , , 

King • 3 ' 

912. The Normans establish themselves in ) £ Q j -^ or Qu ^ e 

Normandy under their leader Rollo 3 
915. The University of Cambridge founded 7 ^ ^ Qubs> 

by Edward the Elder . . .3 

920. The Kingdom of Denmark founded by 7 -Q en ^ oudv 

Gorm 3 

957 Antioch recovered from the Saracens 7 ^ nt « ^. ee na 

by Nicephorus ....)' 
968. Egypt conquered by Mois, the Fata- 1 

mite Caliph. This dynasty filled > Egy. con. ousk 
the throne of Egvpt until 1171 . J 
987. Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian 7 R h c . 

Race, ascended the 1 hrone of b ranee 3 
991. The Arabic Numeral Cyphers intro- 7 One, two, l noub 
duced into Europe . . .3 three J 

1002. The Massacre of the Danes by Ethel- 7 j^ ttie j s | 

red, King of England . . . S 

1005. Churches first built in the Gothic 7 Gothic _ j 

Style 3 

1013. The Danes get possession of England Danes Eng. at. 
1016. Canute conquered Norway, completed "| 

the Conquest of England, and sub- I Canu. Eng. as. 
dued Part of Scotland . . .J 

1025. Musical Characters invented by Guido 7 -p o re m » g] 

Aretino, a Monk . . . . ) 
1040. Macbeth murders Duncan, and usurps 7 M&c gcot ^ 

the Throne of Scotland . . . ) ' ' 

1041/ The Saxon Line is restored in England 7 -g^ g ax ^ 

by Edward the Confessor . . § 
1043. The Turks subdue Persia . . Tur. conq. ot. 

1049. Pope Leo IX., the first Pope who £ LeQ arm ^ 
maintained a regular Army 



1054 Pope Leo taken Prisoner by the Nor- 7 Lqq t&ken uf 

mans ) 

1055. The Turks take Bagdad and overturn 7 CaU fe ^ ul 

the Empire of the Caliphs . £ 

1057. Isaac Comnenus made Emperor of 7 j Com We§t 

the West . . . $ ' 

1058. Robert Guiscard the Norman drives 7 g^ gici ^ 

the Saracens out of Sicily . . £ 

1065. The Turks take Jerusalem from the 7 H , Turk auJ 
Saracens ... . . .3 

n 6 



276 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. D. 

1066. William the Norman conquered Ha- 
rold, and was crowned King of \ Wil. 
England 



1068. Margaret sister of Edgar Atheling | Md ScQt gei> 

married Malcolm, King ot Scotland ) 
1070. William introduced the Feudal Law | p eu ^ ^ 

into England •) 

1079. Doomsday Book compiled . . Doomed — oin. 

Archbishop Lanfranc died . . Lanf. dies — 

1095. The first Crusade to the Holy Land, 7 Cru . nu 

against the Saracens . . . ) 

1098. Antioch taken by the Crusaders . Take Anti. ouk. 

1099. Jerusalem taken by Godfrey of Bou-1 

logne; Knights of St. John insti- ^Take Holy oun. 
tuted J 

1 135. The Order of Knights Templars insti- 7 Rol Jolm ail 

tuted S * 

1136. Lothaire re-conquers Italy . . Lot. Ita. ats. 

1137. Aquitaine united to the Throne of7 . join> b ^ 

France . . • • -3 

1139. Duke Alphonso rescues Portugal from 7 Portu.bin. 

the Saracens, and is made King . j 

1140. Stephen made Prisoner, at the Battle 7 K taken 

of Lincoln, by the Empress Matilda. ) 
1147. The Second Crusade undertaken . Cru. sec. bop. 
1154. TheFamilyof Anjou,orPlantagenet,7 pian> comes buf 

succeed to the British Crown . ) 

1156. Wladimer and Warsaw built by Juric 7 w w hu{{t bus 

or George I. . • • • 3 

1157. The Dynasty of the Princes of Wla- 7 prince m&± , 

demar began with Andrew 1. . ) 

1159. The Bank of Venice instituted . . Veni. bank bun. 

Pope Adrian, an Englishman named 7 p ^ 

Breakspeare, died . . . 3 

1164. The Order of Teutonic Knights insti- 7 ^j*- Teu bauf 

tuted in Germany . . .3 

1187. Saladin obtains a great Victory over 7 g^ ing ^ 
the Christians near 1 iberias . 3 

Saladin takes Jerusalem . . . Takes Holy — 

1202. Constantinople taken by the French 7 Cons taken d , 

and Venetians • 3 

1204. The Inquisition established by Pope 7 InnQ Jn . d f 

Innocent III 3 ' ' 

1208. London obtains a Charter for electing 7 M & m d , 
its Mayor and Magistrates . . $ '" s ' J 

Tuscany becomes a Republic . . Tusc. repu. — 
1210. Crusade against the Albigenses under 7 Alt> . w&r , 

Simon de Montford . . . ) 
1215. Magna Charta signed by John . . . Magna Chart, ebu. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 277 



A. D. A. D. 

1220. Generis Khan, with his Tartars, con- 7 ~ ^ r , -p, , . 
r>- jdi.^a- fG. Khan Pers. dek. 

quers Persia and Part of Asia . ) 

Dies Stephen Langton, Archbishop of 7 T ,. 

Canterbury . . . .J Ua ^' dies _ 

1234. The Inquisition committed to the Do- 7 ,-. T . ,.„ 

• • » T , > Uom. Inqui. dif. 

minican Monks . 3 ^ 

1237. The Tartars subjugate Russia . . Russ. bows dip. 

1242. Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. Gue.& Gib. dod. 

1251. Stockholm built .... Stoc. built dub. 

1258. Bagdad taken by the Tartars ; End of 7 , , , 

the Saracen Empire . . .\ Sarac ' ends duk ' 

1263. The Norwegians invade Scotland ; 7 ^ ~ 

defeated at Largs by Alexander III. ) 

1263. The Western Isles conquered by Den- 7 . -^ 

, r Azores Den. — 

mark . . . . . . ) 

1265. Representatives first sent to Parlia- 7 ,, -, , 

. , r, , J- Boro. par. daul. 

ment by Boroughs . } r 

1266. Sicily conquered by Charles of Anjou. Sici. Anjou daus. 
1272. Provence united to the French Crown. Pro. join doid. 

1282. Sicilian Vespers ; 8000 French were 7 c . . , ., 

j (• Sici. vesp. deid. 

massacred .....). r 

1283. Wales conquered by Edward I. . Wales taken deit. 

1284. Roger Bacon, a philosopher, died . R. Bacon dies deif. 

1291. Died Michael Scott, the Mathematician ") ,, „ <^-,, , , 
A ixj • • YM. Scott dies doub. 

and Musician ... .J 

Ptolemais taken by the Turks ; the 7 p , , 

last Crusade . . . .3 

1298. William Wallace chosen Regent of 7 nr., , , 

Scotland .... . 3 WlL reg " d0uk ' 

1299. Ottoman Empire founded by Oth- ? ~ ix „ , 

man I. . . . . { 0tt0 ' f ' do « n - 

1 302. The Mariner's Compass discovered at 7 A . , , 

Naples . . . . . ) A S ulde ^ 

1304. William Wallace the Scottish Hero, 1 

basely betrayed ; put to death by y Wil. taken tyf. 

Edward I. of England . . J 

1308. Seat of the Popes transferred to Avig- 7 -p, ' 

r ° > Pope moves tyk. 

non ...... 3 r J 

1312. The Knights Templars suppressed by 7 -. r . -. , . , 

Philiplhe Fair . . .\ Km ' ^1. tad. 

1324. Sardinia given by Pope Bonifacius 7 „ . „ 

VIII. to the House of Arragon. . 3 San S lven tef - 

1332. Edward Baliol crowned King of the 7 -r> 1 o ,-i 

c . . & Y Bal. Scon. tid. 

Scots at Scone . ) 

1339. First Doge of Venice elected . . Doge tin. 

1340. Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a 7 . , , 

Monk of Cologne . . . J A destroyer toy. 

Oil painting invented by Van Eyk . Oil p. — 

1346. The Battle of Cressy . . . Batt. Cress, tos. 



278 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. A " D - 

1350. The Order of the Garter instituted by 7 Um[ go ; t t 

Edward III. .... S 

J 352. The Turks first enter Europe . . Tur. Eur. tud. 

1354. William Tell, the Swiss Patriot, 7 TeU drQW> tuf 

drowned . . • • -3 

1356. John II., King of France, taken Pri- 7 Batt p oi tug 

soner at the Battle of Poictiers . $ 

1362. The Law Pleadings in England changed 7 Enal {n CQmt igd 

from French to English . . ) 

1377. The Doctrines of Wickliffe first pro- 7 wick doc _ to ; p> 

pagated in England . . . ) 

Boccaccio, aTuscan Writer and Scholar, 7 Bqcc dieg 

died $ "" ... 

1383. Cannons first used by the English . Great guns lkx. 

1390. Revolt in Sweden .... Swe. revolt my. 

1392. Cape of Good Hope discovered by the | Cape Hope ind> 

Portuguese • 3 

1395. Tamerlane the Tartar subdues Persia Tarn. conq. toul. 
1397. Sweden and Norway united to Den- 7 Calmar _ toup< 

mark under Margaret . . . ) 

1402. Battle of Hallidoun Hill; the Scots | Batt HaUi fyd> 

defeated ..... 3 

1403. Battle of Shrewsbury ; Hotspur killed Batt. Shrew, fyt. 
1405. Tamerlane, the Eastern Conqueror, } Tam ^ f .* 

died Vi ' 

1 408. Owen Glendower, the Welsh Hero, died O. Glen, dies fyk. 
1411. University of St. Andrews, in Scotland, ) v ^ gt _ Ann fab> 

founded * . • • 3 

1415. John Huss condemned by the Council 7 Huss> burnt fal> 

of Constance for Heresy, and burnt. 3 
Henry V. invaded France with 30,000 7 Hen _ invades _ 

men . . • • • • 3 

1417. Savoy erected into a Duchy with Pied- 7 g gi . fep> 

mont by the Emperor Sigismond . ) 
Paper first made from Linen Rags . Rag. pa. fap. 
1420. The Island of Madeira discovered by 7 Made j ra f ez . 

the Portuguese . -3 

1425. The Court Sessions of Scotland insti- 7 gcoL segs> feL 

tuted by James I. • -3 

1428. Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans, raises 7 Joan of Arc odei< 

the Siege of that Town . .3 

1430. Henry VI. is crowned in Paris . Hen. in Par. oty. 

1435! Sicily united to Naples . . Two Sici. fil. 

1440. The Art of Printing discovered by 7 p rintino . foy . 

John Guttenburg, of Strasburg . 3 
1448. Christian of Oldenburg unites Norway^ 

and Sleswick Holstein with Den- V Swed. left fok. 

mark . • «J 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 279 



A. D. 



1453. Constantinople taken by the Turks;' 

Eastern Empire of the Romans be- J- East ends fut. 
comes extinct 



1459 ' denied ° f **!*"?* ^ C ° PPer ** I Co PP . engra. fun. 



1461. The Battle of Towton . . Towt. batt. 

1469. Castile and Leon, Arragon and Sicily,"] 

united by the Marriage of Ferdi- I Arag. & Cast. faun. 

nand and Isabella . . J 

1471. The Battle of Barnet ; Warwick kill- ~) ^ , 4 - ., 

, ■ ., T . • j n . j r- Barn. batt. foib. 

ed ; the Lancastrians defeated . 3 

1474. The Cape Verd Islands discovered by) r TT ■, 

., -A . J V Cap. Verd opo. 

the .Portuguese . • 3 

1479. Russia frees herself from the Tartars . Russ. free foin. 

1485. Battle of Bosworth ; Accession of the"] 

House of Tudor ; union of the Red I Bos. batt. feil. 

and White Roses . . J 

1491. Caxton, the first English Printer, died Caxt. dies ona, 

1492. The Moors expelled from Spain . Moors driven one. 
America discovered by Christopher \ . 

Columbus . . . y 

1497. Cape of Good Hope doubled by Vasca | c doub onoi> 

de Gama . . • 3 

1498. Savonarola burnt by Pope Alexander 1 c , 

X7T n , - , J K M , r,, ., J- Savan. burnt onei. 
VI. tor daring to preach the 1 ruth 3 

1499. Sebastian Cabot lands in North A me- \ p , . . - 

rica . . . ) 

1500. Brazil discovered by the Portuguese Brazil ug. 

Germany divided into Circles by Maxi- 1 ^ 

... J J > Lrer. cir. — 

mihan . . . \ 

1509. Gardening first introduced into Eng- 
land : before this Vegetables were Garden lyn. 
imported from the Netherlands 

1511. Cuba conquered by the Spaniards . Cuba conq. lab. 

1513. Battle of Flodden Field . . Flod. batt. lat. 

1515. Francis I. succeeds to the Throne of 1 ^ . , , 

France . . \ Fran " piU laL 

1516. The Kingdom of Algiers seized by \ Barb AW ^ ]ag 

Barbarossa . . . ^ • e ■ • 

1517. The Reformation commenced in Ger- \ ghake , 

many . . . . ^ iff- 

Cardinal X imenes Premier of Ferdi- J ^ ^ _ 

nand, King of Spam, died . > 

The Turks overpower the Mamelukes } Turk & Mame 

in Egypt . .$ 

1520. Sweden and Denmark united . S. & D. one ley. 

1521. The Conquest of Mexico completed by 1 -, T , . 

t-, ■*, ~ ■ . r " > Mex. conq. leb. 

Fernando Cortes . . ) > 

1522. First Voyage round the World, per- 1 AU rQund kgd 

formed by Magellan . . 3 



280 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



D. 



A. D. 



Rhodes taken by the Turks . Rhodes taken ked. 

1524. Chevalier de Bayard stabbed . Bay. stab. lef. 
The Protestant Faith embraced b y|s.&D. ref. 

Sweden and Denmark . . ) 

1525. Prussia becomes a Dukedom under 1 jy u ^ e ^1. lei. 

Albert of Brandenburg . ) 

1527. Rome taken and plundered by Charles j Car> * fi Romelep. 

The Empire of Peru invaded by \ p eru troubl> _ 
Pizarro . . .3 

Hungary falls to the House of Aus- } jj un „ & ^us. 

tria by Marriage . .3 

1529. The Diet of Spires against the Hugue- \ g . decree len. 

nots or Protestants . . $ 

15S0. Cardinal Wolsey died . . Wolsey dies liz. 

1531. Alexander, the first of eight Sovereigns 7 Alex> of Me ^i. lib. 
from the House of Medici .3 

1534. The Reformation in England . Engl. ref. lif. 
Barbarossa seizes the Kingdom of "I Tun geiz 

Tunis . . .J 

1535. The Order of Jesuits instituted . Loyol. hi. 

1536. Died, Erasmus, a Professor and learned 1 Erag> dies lig 

Writer of Divinity .J 

Sir Thomas Moore beheaded . Moor, decap. — 

1540. Dissolution of Monasteries in England \ Monas disso loz 
by Henry VIIL . • J 

1545. The Council of Trent began, which \ Coun Trent ] ol> 

lasted eighteen years . . J 

1546. Cardinal Beaton, Bishop of St. An-1 Bga assasSm l os . 

drews, assassinated . . J 

Died, Luther, the Father of the Re- \ Luther dies _ 
formation . • J 

1547. The Conspiracy of Fiesco, at Genoa . Sly t Fiesc. lop. 
1552. Died, Leland, the Father of English "I Ant ^ Lel lud> 

Antiquaries . • J 

1554. Several Bishops burned by order of 1 Cruel Mary luf 

Mary . . -J 

1556. Died, Ignatius Loyola, Founder of the / L , dieg lus 
Jesuits . . • ) 

Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, "1 Cran< burnt 

burnt for the Protestant Faith . J 
Calais lost to the English . Calais bad luk. 

The party of Conde conspire against \ Con( j, Guige 

that of Guise ; Civil Wars in France J 
The Reformation in Scotland prose- \ gcot ref> 



1558, 
1560 



1561, 



cuted by John Knox 
Mary Queen of Scots arrives in Scot- \ g^ Mary laub 
from France . • J 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 281 



Don John upa. 
► St. Bartho. loid. 



A. d. a. 

1566. The Netherlands revolt from Philip "\ Net> re b e l uss. 

David Rizzio murdered at the Palace 7 „ , j 
of Holyrood . • ) 

1568. Mary seeks Protection in England . Mary comes usei 

1 57 1 . Don John of Austria defeats the Turks 1 

at Lepanto . . J 

1572. Horrible Massacre of the Protestants 

under Catherine de Medicis and 

Charles I X„ of France 
1574. Socinus propagated his Opinions, and") gocii hereg> loif 

founded the Sect of Socinians .J 

Sebastian of Portugal invades Africa Afri. troubl. — 
1559. The Republic of Holland commenced Dutch re lun. 
1580. Portugal seized by Philip II. . . Phil. seiz. leiz. 

Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates the ? rj t< a - i 

Globe ..... 5 

1584. Virginia discovered by Sir Walter 7 y iro . m i a j^jjj 

Raleigh } ° 

1587. Mary of Scotland beheaded at Fother- 7 p __ i\f arv \ e ' 1D 

ingay Castle . . . . ) 

1588. The Spanish Armada destroyed . . Fleet sinks leik. 

1589. Henry le Grand, first of the Bourbon 7 -Roorbon lein 

Branch ...... 3 

1596. Cadiz taken by the English . . Cadi, taken lous. 

1598. Edict of Nantes, tolerating Protestants 7 Nant decree louk. 
in France . . . . ,3 

Tyrone's Rebellion in Ireland . . Tyro, rebel — 

Cecil, Lord Burleigh, Premier to Queen 7 r ., ,. 

Elizabeth, died . . ' . . $ Ceci1 meS _ ~" 

1600. Gowrie's Conspiracy in Scotland . . Sly Gowri. aug. 
East India Company established . East comp. — 

1601. Tycho_Brahe, Danish Astronomer, died Tycho dies syb. 

1603. Union between Scotland and Eng- 7 c : ^ 

land } Sc0t & Eng * Syt ' 

1604. Duc^SuJly, d P^erofHenryIV.| Sully ^ ., f 

1608. Galileo discovers Jupiter's Satellites . Moon syk. 

Arminius founds his Sect . . . Armin.heres — 

1610. Henry IV. of France murdered by 7 Ren R 

Roubilhac ..... 3 J 

Hudson's Bay discovered . . . Hud. bay — 

1611. Baronetsfirst created and Titles sold by 7 -r, . 

T T • > Baronet sab. 

James I. . . . . .3 

1617. Rebellion in Bohemia followed by ) D , 

thirty Years of War . . 7 . J Bohe. war sap. 

1619. Dr. Harvey discovers the Circulation 7 ™ 

of the Blood . . . .J FW 0n san ' 

Sir Walter Raleiarh executed . . Ralei. killed — 



282 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. D. 

1620. 

1621. 
1625. 

1628. 

1635. 
1638. 
1640. 

1641. 

1642. 

1643. 
1644. 
1649. 

1650. 

1652. 

1653. 

1654. 



1658. 
1659. 



1660. 

1662. 



1664. 
1665. 
1666. 



1667. 



1669. 
1678. 
1683. 



West 



seb. 
sel. 



killed sek. 



Fran, 
taken 

driven 



sir. 

sik. 



mass. sob. 

war sod. 

decapi. sot. 
revo. sof. 

decapi. son. 



batt. 



sud. 



Battle of Prague . . . . Prag. batt. 

Navarre united to France ... . Navar. one 

Batavia built and settled by the Dutch. Batav. built 
First English Settlement in West In • \ „ , 

dies on the Island of Barbadoes . 5 
Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, assassi- } y. ,,. 

nated ) 

The French Academy instituted . Learn 

Bagdad taken by the Turks . . Bag. 

John Duke of Braganza expels the } „ 

Spaniards from Portugal . • j ' 

Irish Rebellion and Massacre of Protes- \ T 

tants . . . . . • ) 

Civil Wars in England commenced \ „ 

under Charles I. *". . . . ) g * 
Abp. Laud condemned and beheaded . Laud 
Revolution in China by the Tartars . Chin. 
Charles beheaded ; the Common- \ ^^ 

wealth in England begins . . ) 

Marquis of Montrose put to death ; } ^ 

Battle of Dunbar . . . . ) 

The first War between the Dutch and ? ^ o r» 

„ .. , > E. & D. war 

English ) 

Oliver Cromwell declared Protector . Oli. Crom. sut. 

Admiral Perm takes Possession of Ja- } p j 

maica for the English . . . j 

Christina of Sweden resigns be*i CtaMn/abdfcuf 

Crown to Charles X. . . . ) 

Died Inigo Jones, a classic Architect . Inigo dies 
Dunkirk delivered to the English . Dun. Engl. 
The Peace of the Pyrenees between ) p 

France and Spain . . . • j 
Charles II. — Restoration of Monarchy \ rr- 

by General Monk . . .J S 

The Royal Society instituted in Eng- ) R , g auge 

land 3 

Dunkirk resold to the French . . Dunk, sold — 

The second Dutch War begins . . Quarrel again sauf. 

The great Plague in London . . Plague saul. 

The great Fire in London . . . Fire saus. 

Sabatei Levi pretends to be the Mes- } r • asD ; res _ 

siah S 

Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and NewT 

York confirmed by the Peace of J- Peace of Bred, saup 

Breda . . . . . .J 



suk. 



again ausy. 



Candia taken by the Turks 
The Habeas Corpus Act passed 
Executions of Lord Russell and 
gernon Sydney ... 



Al 



Candiataken saun. 
Habeas Corpus soik. 

> Russel. Syd. seit. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



283 



A. D. 

1683. 



1686. 
1688. 
1689. 
1690. 

1692. 

1695. 
1701. 

1702. 

1703. 
1704. 

1706. 

1706. 

1712. 

1715. 



v Solar 



Scot. 
Batt. 



171! 



1720. 
1725. 



1726. 
1728. 



Vienna beseiged by the Turks, raised } y 

by John Sobieski . . . .3 

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by 

Louis XIV 

The Newtonian Philosophy published 

in England .... 
Revolution in Britain ; Abdication of 

James II. .... 
William abolishes Episcopacy in Scot 

land ..... 
Battle of the Boyne . 
Died George Fox, Founder of the Sect 

called Quakers 
Hanover made the ninth Electorate of 

the Empire .... 
Namur taken by King William 
James II. died at St. Germain's 
Prussia becomes a Kingdom 
War declared by England" against 

France and Spain 
Admiral Rooke takes Gibraltar 
The Battle of Blenheim . 
Peter the Great founds St. Petersburg 
Union of English and Scotch Parlia- 
ments ..... 
Battle of Oudenarde 
Minorca taken by General Stanhope 
Civil War in Switzerland between the 

Protestants and Catholics 
Rebellion in Scotland in favour of the 

Pretender, Charles Edward . 
This Year died the learned and pious 

Matthew Henry . 
George Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury 

an eminent Writer 
Archbishop Fenelon, of Cambray, i 

useful French Writer . 
Malebranche and Leibnitz, Philoso 

phers ..... 
Charles XII. of Sweden killed at the 

Siege of Fredericshall . 
The South- Sea- Bubble Scheme burst 
Died the Czar Peter the Great, sue 

ceeded by the Empress Catherine 
There was a great Earthquake at 

Palermo . ... 

A Treaty, offensive and defensive, be 

tween Spain, England, France, and I p 

Holland, by which the Peace of [ ' 

Europe was established . . J 



shot 



A. D. 

seit. 



Nant. revok. — 



sys. 



Revo. Engl. 



Epis. 
Boyne 



seis. 

seik. 

sein. 
auny. 



G. Fox dies — 

Hano. rais. soud. 

Namur poor soul. 
Jam. sec. dies pyb. 
Pruss. king — 

War with F. & S. pyd. 

Gibr. Rooke pyt. 
Batt. Blen. pyf. 
Petersb. f. — 

Scot, repre. pys 

Ouden. Batt. — 
Minor, taken — 

War in Swit. pad. 

Rebel. Scot. pal. 

M. Hen. dies — 

Burnet — — 



Fenelon — 


— 


Malebranche 





Leibnitz 


. — 


Car. killed 


pak. 


A bubble 


pey 


Czar Peter 


pel. 



Pal 






erm. qua. pes. 



again pen. 



284 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



r>. 



pit. 

pit. 

pis. 



1 728. Seven Cherokee Indian Chiefs laid their ~j 

Crowns at the Feet of the English „ , . 

King, acknowledging themselves his f Seven submit * ,en ' 

Subjects . . , . . j 

1730. The Turks defeated by the Persians, 7 *[ -* 

under Kouli Khan . . . \ Kouh con * olt >' 

1733. The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay Jesui. Parag. ] 

1734. A Treaty of Commerce entered into) ^ , .,,0 

between Great Britain and Russia \ Tradewith Russ 

1736. Kouli Khan, or Nadir Shah, is pro- > Tr i- t 

claimed King of Persia . . \ Kouh kin S 

1737. The House of Lorraine succeeds to ) ,, ,. . e „ 

that of Medici . \ Medlcl falIs P'P" 

1738. The Russians invade the Crimea . Russ. Crim. pik. 

1738. This Year died Dr. Boerhaave, the } « , 

Dutch Chemist and Botanist . . \ Boerhaave *« - 
Fahrenheit, the Inventor of the Ther- ) ^ , , . 

mometer, and Lord Lansdowne . \ * anrenheit W ~ 

1739. Nadir Shah makes great Conquests in 1 ^ ,. , T , 

the Mogul Empife . . .\ * adir Mo S ul P in " 

A Treaty entered into between Great 1 ^ * -^ 

Britain and Denmark . . . J Engl. & Den. _ 
Portobello taken by Admiral Vernon Portobello — 

Peace concluded between Russia, Aus- } „ A ™ , 

tria, and the Turks . . . \ Russ ' Aus ' & Turk * " 

1741. War between Poland and Hungary, } w . c 

and between Russia and Sweden . { War a § ain 0lfa " 
Carthagena taken by Admiral Vernon Cartha. taken — 
Died Rollin, Writer of Ancient History Rollin dies — 

1742. This Year died Dr. Edmund Hal ley, ?„,,,• A 

the great Mathematician . \ Halle y dies P od ' 

1743. A War breaks out in Germany, in") 

which the British, Hungarians, I German war pot. 
French, and Austrians are engaged J 

1744. Great Britain declares War against 1 ^ ^ * 

France .... ^Eng.&F.war pof. 

Commodore Anson completes his 1 „ j 

Voyage round the World . . \ Ans0n r0Und ~ 

1745. Louisberg and Cape Breton taken by 1 T . , 1 h , 

the French Troops . . \\ Loulsb ' taKen P° l 

A Rebellion breaks out in Scotland! c . nu v , 
in favour of the Pretender . . J bcot Cn « -^ ~ 

1746. Count Saxe takes Brussels and Ant- ) „ B . . 

werp £Pruss.&Ant. pos. 

The Battle of Culloden, in which the 1 „ , , n „ 

Pretender is totally defeated . . \ Batt ' LuI1 °- ~ 

A dreadful Earthquake at Lima, which > T . , 

destroyed the City . . . J Llraa ^ uakes ~ 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



285 



A. D. 

1747. 



1748. 
1749. 



1752. 

1753. 
1754. 

1755. 
1756. 

1758. 
1759. 

1760. 
1762. 

1763. 

1764. 

1766. 
1768. 



1769. 
1770. 



1772: 



New Style pud. 



Kouli Khan assassinated, and Persia "| 

divided between the Governors of > Kouli assass. 

the Provinces . . . .J 
The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . Peace of Aix. 

The Pope Benedict XIV. and the ] 

Venetians enter into a Treaty > Pope & Vene. 

against the Algerines . . .J 

The New Style is introduced into Bri- 
tain, Sept. 3rd being reckoned the 

14th . . 

The British Museum established at 

Montague House . 
A great Eruption of Etna, and 

Earthquake at Constantinople 
This Year died Henry Fielding 

Author of " Tom Jones" 
Lisbon destroyed by an Earthquake 
War declared between Great Britain 

and France .... 
Senegal taken by the English . 
The English take Louisburg and Fort 

de Quesne .... 
General Wolfe is killed at the taking ? w if ^'li j 



pop. 



pok. 



pon. 



put. 
puf. 



} 
\ 

} 

> Fielding dies — 
Lisbon sinks pul. 

> Eng. & F. again pus. 
Senegal taken puk. 

> Engl. Ame. — 



Brit. Muse. 
Etna boils 



pun. 



French Fleet 
Canada ours 



oisy 



of Quebec 
The French Fleets defeated by Bos- \ 

cawen and Hawke ... 3 
Montreal and Canada taken by the 

British 

Martinico and Havannah surrendered ) -» r ... 

to the English . . . . \ Martim - ° urs 01se ' 
The Jesuits banished from France . Fran. Jesuit — 
The Peaee of Paris between Great ? -n r- -n • 

Britain, France, and Spain . . \ PeaCe ° f PanS P aut 

Many Groups of Islands discovered in } j , 

the South Seas by Admiral Byron $ 
The Stamp Act repealed for America Ame. repeal 
The Royal Academy of Arts was estab- \ p^,^ * j 



found 



pauf. 
paus. 
pauk. 



lished in London . . . ) ^ 

Corsica united to France . . Corsi. Fran. 

This Year died Seeker, Archbishop of 1 q 1 _■• 

Canterbury; and the Abbe Win- L 

kelman murdered ... 
War between Russia and the Turks 
The Accession of the House of Bour- "1 

bon to Spain . . . . j Bourb. Spain 

Revolution in Denmark; Struensee be- 1 

headed, and the English Queen > Change in Den. poid. 

banished . . . . .1 

Poland dismembered by Russia, Prus- 
sia, and Austria 



Wink, assass. — 
Russ. & T. war paun. 
oipy. 



Polan. divi. — 



286 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

a. d. *• D " 

177S. Captain Cook completed his second 1 Twice round it 

Voyage round the World . J 

1775. A great Dearth in France . . Dearth Fran. poil. 

1777. Philadelphia taken by the British Ip^ taken poip> 

Troops .... J 

1778. The Americans declare their Inde-| Ame daim poik 

pendence J 

1779. The Crimea becomes independent Crim. free poin. 
Captain Cook was killed by the Sa ""l Qwhye. 

vages of Ovvhyee . J 

A great Eruption of Vesuvius . . Ves. boils — 

1780. Charleston surrenders to the British Chtown.taken oiky. 
Popish Riots all through England . Popish riots — 
War declared between Great Britain J Tj utcn ter# 

and Holland . . • .3 

1782. The French Fleet defeated off Domi-l Rodneins j d 

nica by Admiral Rodney • -J 

1783. The Independence of America ack-\ Ame< fi . ee - t 

nowledged, and Peace proclaimed J 

1784. The War between Great Britain and"| 

Holland ended, after five Years' <-Eng. & H. ag. peif. 

Contest . . • • «J 

1787. The Assembly of the Notables con- > First stpp peip> 

vened at Paris . 3 

Warren Hastings impeached on al 

Charge of gross Misdemeanours J- Warren Hast. — 

during his Government in India . J 
Oczakaw besieged and taken by Po- 1 0cza taken 

temkin 3 

17S8. The young Pretender, Charles Ed- ) Ch>Ed> dks peik . 

ward, died at Rome , . .3 

1789. The States General assemble at Paris, 1 An assembIy pein . 

and form a National Assembly . J 
The Bastile destroyed and the Go- 1 Bagt razed ___ 

vernor murdered . . . . I 
The Austrians driven out, and the Ne- \ ^ eL free 

therlands declared free . . J 

Decree for dividing France into eighty- \ France d j v ; # _ 

three Departments . J 

1790. Monastic Establishments and Titles of 7 Equa ]i ty om y # 

Nobility suppressed . . . ) 
Abdul Hamid died, and Selim III. > Abdul H. dies ~ 

mounted the Imperial Throne . ) 
A Conference held at Reichenbach^ 

between Britain, Holland, Prussia, 

Austria, and Poland, when Peace 

was made between the Austrians 

and Turks . 
War commenced in India with Tippo # T j war> 

Sultan . . • • • 3 



Reichenbach — 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



287 



Louis taken poub. 



1791. King of France and his Family at-"| 

tempt an Escape; are arrested at l 
Varennes . . . .J 

— — accepts the Constitution . . Accedes 

1792. Gustavus III. of Sweden assassinated "| 

by Ankerstrom . . . . J Gustav.assass. oine. 
Duke of Sudermania declared Regent 1 

in Sweden . . . . : v 

Awful Disturbances in Paris ; King = 

and Queen in danger; the Swiss 

Guards massacred by the Populace 
A frightful Massacre of the State 

Prisoners 
A Republic declared, with Fraternity 

and Assistance to all Nations who f Paris distressed — 

desire to recover their Liberty 
The Royal Family made Prisoners in 

the Temple 
Savoy is incorporated with the Re- 
public ..... 

1793. Louis brought to Trial; condemned, "5 

and beheaded by the Guillotine . J Louis decapi. pout. 

Russia declares War against France . R U ss. oppose 

The Convention declares War against "1 

England and Holland . . j En g- & Ho] - — 

Toulon surrenders to the Fleet of Lord | 

Hood . . . . . J Toulon taken — 

Maria Antoinette, Queen of France, T 

condemned and beheaded the same L Maria decani 

^y ; J 

All the principal Men of the Govern- "1 

merit Party guillotined . j Man y g™Uo. — 

The Reign of Terror at its height I 

under Robespierre . . J I error — 

1794. The Princess Elizabeth of France be- "1 

headed . . . f ^ z - decapi. pouf. 

The English Parliament suspend the I 



Habeas Corpus Act . . . j 

The French Fleet defeated off Ushant"! 
by Lord Howe . . . .j" 

In July, the infamous Robespierre, 
with many of his Associates, receive 
their just Reward, and are dragged 
to the Scaffold by the Wretches 
they upheld ..... 

This Autumn remarkable for the 
Trials of Tooke, Thelwall, and 
others, for Treason 

A Reign of Terror commenced in the 
Republic of Geneva 



:} 



H.C. null _ 



Howe Ushant 



Robesp. killed 



Trial treason — 



Terror Swiss 



288 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. D. 



1795. The Stadtholder seeks Refuge in"| 

England ; French, under Piche- > Statd. Engl. poul. 
grew, overrun Holland . . J 

The i'^ i 5 1 A^T re,1 -iS I f til,g8 C0 ""l Warren acquit. - 
eluded by his Acquittal . J ^ 

Lyons reduced to Ruins and its loyal 1 L ^y _ 

Inhabitants massacred . . . J ' 

Belgium included in the French Re-1 Bel . b> __ 

public . . . . . . J 6 ' 

The Cape of Good Hope taken by thel - Eno .j c jj e 

British J & • • P 

Poland again divided between Russia, "1 

Austria, and Prussia, and Stanislaus |> Pol. div. again — 

II. deposed . . . . .J 
The " New Batavian Republic'''' formed, "1 -p . . ■. 

under the Protection of France .J • I • 

1796. The Inhabitants of the Pays du Vaud 1 

and other Swiss Cantons cast them- J- Swiss cry pous. 
selves on the Protection of France J 
Catherine II. of Russia dies ; is sue- "I ^ , i. 
ceeded by her Son Paul . . J 

1797. The Dutch Fleet defeated; captured 1 Dunc Dutch p 

by Lord Duncan ... J 

The Venetian Republic overthrown . Vene. finis. 

1798. Rome declared a Republic by the "| 

French ; Pope Pius VI. led Pri- > Pius captive pouk. 

soner to Paris . . . .J 

Ireland in open Rebellion . . Ire. rebel. — 

The French Fleet totally defeated by~l j, ,. -j^-. 

Lord Nelson at the Nile . .J 
The French take Military Possession^ 

of Switzerland, under the Name of I Helve, repub. — 

the Helvetic Republic . . .J 

1799. Seringapatam taken < by the .British ; \ Ti ki]led 

the Sultan, Tippoo Saib, killed . J ^ r 
An Expedition of the British Troops \ 

against Holland . . . .J 

France under the Consulate Govern- 1 -^ 

ment ; Bonaparte First Consul . ) P ' 

1800. Battle of Marengo, which decided thel fiatt Maren ei(T# 

Fate of Italy . . . .J °' 

Pope Pius VII. resumed the Govern-^ p. r 

ment of Rome . . . .J 

Malta taken by the British . . Malta ours — 

1801. Union of Great Britain with Ireland . Engl. & Ire. eiza. 
First Imperial Parliament met in"! 

January ..... J — 

Mr. Pitt, after being Prime Minister » p. i eaves 

for Eighteen Years, resigns . . J ' 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 289 

A. D. A. D. 

1801. The Emperor of Russia, Paul, dies,! A1 „ 

and is succeeded by Alexander I. j Alex * Kuss> eiza ' 
Cairo taken by the British . . Cairo ours — 

Alexandria taken by the British; Sir") A1 

Ralph Abercrombie killed . .j" A1 ex. ours — 
This year died the Russian General! „ ,. 

Surwaroff .... J Surwaroff dies.- 
Cowper the Poet ; Dr. Blair . . Cowper, Blair — 

Lavater the Swiss Physiognomist . Lavater — 

1802. Peace of Amiens .... Amiens kyd. 
Religion re-established in France ; the "j 

King of Sardinia resigns his Crown y 
to his Brother . . . .J 

1 803. Hostilities recommenced between Bri- > „ r \ 

tain and France . . . \ War anew ^ 

1804. Mahomed Ali and his three Sons first \ AV -^ , 

became powerful in Egypt . J g7 ' Y 

1805. The memorable Battle of Trafalgar/ 

A complete victory gained over the 

combined fleets of France and > Nelson kyl. 

Spain, by Lord Nelson, who fell in 

the battle .... 

1806. Buenos Ayres in South America taken ? t> i 

by the British .... J Buenos ours k y & 
Joseph Bonaparte made King of Na- 1 j j> t » 

pies and Sicily . . . \ •&"""' 

Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of) t, 

Italy . m . . . .{Euge.vxce. - 

Louis Bonaparte King of Holland L. Bona. Hoi. — 

German Constitution overthrown for") r 

the Rhenish Confederation . . J Lrerman y — 

Hostilities recommenced between ) t> o t» 

France, Prussia, and Russia . j Pruss ' & Russ — 

This year died the great rival Poli- 1 -p „.„ ,. 

ticians, Mr. Fox and Mr. Pitt . J F ° X & Plttdie ~ 

1807. Copenhagen taken by the British, and ) ^ : . , 

the Danish Fleet captured . . J C °P en ' taken k ?P' 

A decisive Victory over the Russians ) t. ,-, . , 

by the French at Friedland . $ Katt " * ned ' _ 

Peace of Tilsit, between France, Rus- ~i rp., . 

sia, and Prussia . . . ) 

Tuscany given to Napoleon . . Tusc. given 

Spain and France unite against Portugal Portu. troubl. 

1 808. Ferdinand and his Family made Pri- > t, , , 

soners by Bonaparte . . \ Fer ' ca P tlve k y k 

Hostilities between Spain and France. 
Joseph Bonaparte made King of Spain ) T „ „ . a T , 

and India . . . . . \ X Bona. Spain &Ind. 



290 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Maria Bona. kay. 



1 808. A general Revolt in Spain against their " 

Invaders the French ; Sir Arthur 

Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) J-Penin. war. kyk. 

sent out with a large Army to the 

Assistance of Spain 

1 809. Wars between Austria and France con- 

cluded, after the Battle of Wagram, [ Peace Vien. kyn. 

by the Peace of Vienna 
The British Fleet take and destroy } ^Ivl^ 

Flushing . . . . • ) 

The Marriage between the Empress 1 

Josephine and the Emperor Napo- j- Jos. 

leon dissolved ... J 

1810. Bonaparte married the Archduchess " 

Maria Louisa of Austria . 
Holland and the Hanseatic Towns an- \ 

nexed to France . . .J 

George III. of England disabled fori 

public Business by the Death of his V Geo. sick 

Daughter Princess Amelia . J 

1812. Hostilities between Russia, Poland, 1 jjostili 

and France ...._) 
The Hon. Spencer Perceval shot in the 1 

Lobby of the House of Commons I Perceval 

by Bellingham 
The French take Smolensko by Storm ;^ 

they enter Moscow ; the Inhabitants 

set fire to the City, which continued 

burning Three Days; the French 

retreat, under the command of the 

King of Naples; the greater Part 

of the Army lost from dreadful Pri- 
vations and Cold ; Bonaparte deserts 

his Army, and makes a disgraceful 

Retreat . . . • 

1813. The Battle of Vittoria gained by the 

Duke of Wellington 
The Battle of Leipsic, gained by the 1 

allied Armies of Russia, Prussia, V Lei ic batt 

and Austria, over Bonaparte . J 
The Netherlands throw off the French 1 



kad. 



shot — 



}> Russ. campa. — 



Vitto. batt. 



° f ) 



Yoke, and recall the Prince 
Orange from England 
1814. The Allies enter Paris ; Napoleon ab- 
dicates the Throne of France, re- 
serving to himself the Majesty of 
the Island of Elba, to which he 
retired 



Nethe. revolt — 



Nap. abdi. kaf. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 291 



Peace 



Ney shot — 

[• Pacha dies kas. 



1815. Bonaparte quits Elba, arrives at Paris, ~] 

and replaces himself on the Im- I Nap. returns kal. 

perial Throne . ... J 

Napoleon personally defeated at Water- ~| 

loo, in a decisive Battle against the J- W aterloo — 

English and Prussians . . J 

The Allies a second Time in possession \ 

of Paris ..... 3 
Napoleon abdicates in favour of his 

Son, and throws himself upon the 

Protection of the English ; and is 

by the Allied Powers banished to St. 

Helena. A general Peace through- 
out all Europe .... 
Marshal Ney, General under Bonaparte, 

shot ..... 

1816. Tussan Pacha died of the Plague in 

Egypt ..... 
Lord Exmouth destroys the Fleet and! 

Town of Algiers, forced the Dey to I c dves freed __ 

submit, and gave Liberty to 1211 j r 

Christian Captives . . J 

Princess Charlotte, Daughter of the") 

Regent, George IV., married Leo- I Char. Leop. — 

pold of Saxe- Coburg . . 

Princess Mary, Daughter of George 1 

III., married her Cousin, the Duke l Mary Glou. — 

of Gloucester . ... 

Mesmer, Author of " Animal Magnet- 1 , T ,. 

„ j. •, ° J- Mesmer dies — 

ism, died .... 

Dr. Ferguson, the Historian, and Brins-T -r, „, ., 

ley Sheridan, the Statesman, died j Fer g uson & Sheridan. 

1817. Death of the Princess Charlotte ofl 

Wales and Saxe-Coburg, in Child- I A princess dies kap. 
birth J 

1818. William, Duke of Clarence, married 

the Princess of Saxe-Meiningen 

The Duke of Kent married the Prin- 
cess of Leiningen 

Kosciusko, a noble Polish Patriot and 



\ Duke marries. 
.Kent mar. eibei. 



In this year died Charlotte, Queen of 1 



General, died in Switzerland < Kosciusko dies 



England, the faithful and excellent \ Queen — — 
Wife of George the III. . . J 

Riots in Manchester and various Parts ) -r,. , ~ r 

of England .... ) Rlots Man ' ~ 
1819. A dreadful Earthquake in the Eastl „ ^ , 

Indies J- as s a. 

o 2 



292 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. D. &• »' 

1819. In the December of this Year died"| 

George III., in the eighty-second J. Geo. ter. dies kan. 
Year of his Age . . .J 

1820. TheDukede Berri murdered by Louvel Berri killed key. 
A Revolution in Spain . . . Spain revolt — 
In January of this Year died the Duke 7 j£ ent d j es 

of Kent, fourth Son of George III. 5 
A Conspiracy, of a sanguinary Nature, "J 

was discovered in Cato Street ; the I r onsD j racv 

chief Plotters taken, and deservedly j V J 

punished .... J 
The Morea the Theatre of the Greek 7 Reyo Q fee 

Revolution .... 3 
Caroline Wife of George IV. returned*! 

from Italy, and claimed to be con- l Caroline — 

sidered Queen of England . J 

Bill of Pains and Penalties, on which ~| 

Queen Caroline was tried, but not l acquitted — 

found guilty .... J 
Ali Pacha declares himself independent 7 . ^ Pacha 

of Turkey .... 3 

1821. Bonaparte dies at St. Helena . Nap. dies eida. 
The Republic of Columbia secured by ~l Q j um# re pub. ■*• 

the Bolivar at Carababo . .J 
Queen Caroline dies . . . Carol, dies — 

Struggles of the Greeks to free them- 7 Greeks free _ 

selves from the Mahomedan Yoke 3 

1822. The Holy Alliance displeased with the 1 Hq1 ^ eide ^ 

new Constitution of Spain J 

An Empire erected in Brazil . . Brazi. emp. — 
The Population of the Island of Scio 7 Massacre __ 

massacred by the Turks . . 3 
Brazil proclaims its Independence . Brazi. indepen. — 
Herschel, the Astronomer, Discoverer 7 Herschel dies _ 

of " Uranus, died . .3 
Shelley, the Poet, drowned at Leghorn Shelley — 
Canova, the celebrated Sculptor, died Canova — 
Ismael Pacha assassinated during a 7 j smael p ac h a 

Revolution at Sennaar . .3 

1823. A memorable iEra of Joint- Stock Com- 1 
panies, which resulted in the Ruin i- Joint Stock ket. 
of many opulent Familes . . J 



ui uimiy upmeui, o.'»iiiiica . . j 

The gallant Guerilla Chief, Riego, 1 R . Q kiUed _ 
cruelly put to death . . . j ° 
"rid,! 



The French have possession of Madrid, "J p r ^ ]\j adr i u 
and assist Ferdinand VII. to estab 



lish a Tyranny 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



293 



1823. George IV. presents his Father's va- 

luable Library to the British Mu- 
seum ; 10,000/. were voted for the 
erection of a Building for its Re- 
ception ..... 
A Republic formed in Mexico . 

1824. Treaties of Amity and Commerce con- 

cluded by England with Mexico, 
Columbia, and Buenos Ay res 



Library 



ket, 



1825. 



Mex. Repub. — 
Ame. trade kef. 



Many Restrictions on Imports and 1 T 
Exports removed . . . . J m ' 

1 1 Duti. 
. War 



Protection Duties between France and 

Ireland removed . 
War with the Ashantees in Africa 



remo. 
Afri. 



War Birma. 



-> 



ill. 



This year a War broke out between"] 
the East India Company and the 
sovereign of the Birman Empire. 
Several splendid victories were ob- 
tained by the British, who eventu- 
ally added several large provinces 
to the British possessions, and ob- 
tained a considerable sum of money 
for defraying the expences of the war: 
the enemies' armies annihilated, and 
the country rendered desolate 

The Independence of the South Ameri- 
can Provinces acknowledged by J- S. Ame. indepen. 
Britain, and Consuls appointed 

Mahomed Ali built Mosques in every "1 

Egyptian Village at his own ex- L Crescent 
pence J 

This year Louis XVIII. died, and 
was succeeded by Charles X. 

Alexander Emperor of Russia died . Alex. — 

Ibrahim Pacha, son of the Viceroy of] 
Egypt, lands in the Morea, takes 
Navarin, and commits fearful ra- 
vages . . . . . .J 

1 826. A War breaks out between the Rus- > „ ,, . , 

sians and Persians . . . | Russ ' & Perei - kes ' 

Troops sent from England to assist"] 

the Portuguese and Don Pedro J- Pedro help, 
against the Rebels . . .J 

This year died Frederic Duke of York, > -,-, , , „ , , 
heir presumptive to the Crown . \ Fred ' of * crk ke P' 

o 3 



Louis dies — 



Navarin tak. kel. 



1827. 



294 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



•Canning dies kep. 



Make 
Algi. 



peace 
Fran. 



eity. 



Geo. quar. dies. 



- Car. ten. abdi. 



A. D. 

1827. George Canning, one of the greatest 

and most upright Statesmen Eng- 
land ever knew, fell a sacrifice to 
the cares and anxieties of his public 
duties . • • • ■ ' s 

The Battle of Navarino . . . Navari. batt. — 

1828. The Russians declare War against the! Rusg & Turk kek 

Turks J 

1829 Catholic Emancipation conceded ; Ca- j 

tholics allowed to sit in both Houses \ Catho. emanc. ken 
of Parliament . • • • J 

Russians in possession of Adrianople . 
Peace signed at Adrianople 
1830. Algiers taken by the French 

This year died George IV., and is suc- 
ceeded by his brother William IV. 
A Revolution in France ; Charles X. 
expelled ; and Louis Philippe, Duke 
of Orleans, raised to the Throne as 
" King of the French" 
This year died Bolivar, the Liberator of 1 Bolivar dies eity. 

South America, and . • • J 

Sir Humphrey Davy, to whom Chemis- 1 

try and Natural Philosophy are \ Sir H. Davy — 
deeply indepted . . • • J 
Holland and Belgium made separate "1 H & Bel diyid> eita# 

and independent Kingdoms . • J 
William Frederic Louis VI. retained "1 

Holland, called King of the Nether- j-W. Fred. 

lands . . • • • • J 

Leopold of Saxe-Coburg made King j Leopold # _ 

of Belgium . • • • J 

Great Changes in the British Ministry Changes 
Disturbances and Outrages throughout 1 Troubles 

the Kingdom . • • J 

An incendiary Fire in Bristol, which" 
destroyed the Episcopal Palace, the 
Excise Office, the Mansion House, 
and the greater part of Queen 
Square . . • • . 

Great Britain visited by Asiatic Cho- "| 

lera Morbus, which carried off V Cholera — 

thousands by its pestilence . . J 
1832. The Independance of Greece recog-"| 

nised, and Otho, Prince of Bavaria, V Greece indepen. kid. 
made King J 

This year died Baron Cuvier, the great \ Cuyier & es __ 

French Naturalist • • -J 



1831. 



Fires 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



295 



A. I>. 

1832. 
1833. 



] 834. 
1835. 



1836, 



1837. 



1838. 



1839. 



1340. 



The Reform Bill passed . 

The first Reform Parliament met in "J 
February ; many old Boroughs I 
disfranchised, new ones made, and | 
Counties divided. . . .J 

Charter of the Bank of England re- "^ 
newed . . . . .J 

The Trade to India and China thrown \ 
open J 

The Slave Trade utterly abolished 

Died, Joseph Nollikins, an eminent "1 
Sculptor . . . . . J 

Both Houses of the British Parliament ^ 
destroyed by Fire . . . J 

An Attempt made to assassinate Louis 
Philippe of France, by Fieschi and 
his " Infernal Machine " 

Bills passed in the British Parliament ' 
for the Reform of Corporations ; for 
the Marriage of Dissenters in their 
own chapels; for the Commutation 
of Tithes ; and the nearer Equalisa- 
tion of Episcopal Sees . 

Great Fire in New York, which de- 
stroyed property to the estimated 
amount of 20,000,000 dollars 

This year died William IV., and was" 
succeeded by his Niece, Alexandrina 
Victoria 

Hanover separated from England ; 
Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, suc- 
ceeds as King 

Revolt and Insurrection in the Canadas 

The Great Western Steam-ship, the 
first that ventured to cross the At- 
lantic by the power of Steam only, 
made a prosperous Passage to New 
York in fifteen days 

Peace and Tranquillity restored to the ' 
Canadas and Jamaica 

Died, Charles Maurice Talleyrand, an ^ 
eminent French Diplomatist . J 

England disturbed by the Meetings! 
of disaffected turbulent Men, calling y 
themselves Chartists . .J 

Queen Victoria marries Albert, Prince") 
of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha . J 



A. D. 

Reform kid. 



New boroughs kit. 
Bank Chart. — 

Slave abo. — 

Nollikins dies — 

Parli. burnt kif. 
Sly Fieschi kil. 



Corpo. ref. 
Diss, marri. 



Fire N. York kis. 

Victoria kip. 

Erne. Han. — 

Cana. rebel — 



Steam 



kik. 



Peace C. & J. — 
Talleyrand dies — 

Chartists kin. 

Vic. & Alb. koy. 



296 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



; } 



1840. A serious Collision between the Chi- 

nese Authorities and the British Sub- 
jects at Canton 

Peace concluded with Egypt and 
France 

War in Cabul ; Dost Mahomet taken 
prisoner 

1 841 . The Armoury in the Tower of London \ 

burnt down . . J 

Peace restored with China ; Trade 
thrown open, and exertions com 
menced for Christianising China 

1842. A frightful Accident on the Railway "j 

between Paris and Versailles, by I 

which eighty persons were killed or J 

burned . . .1 

The Affghans in the East Indies sub»~| 

dued ; great Accession of Territory l 

to the British . . J 

A dreadfully destructive Fire in Ham- i 

burg . . . J 

Treaty of Arrangement made between "1 

England and America . J 

A great Fire in Liverpool, which de- ~ 

stroyed Property to the amount of 

500,000Z. 
Died, David Wilkie, Painter of Fami- \ 

liar Life . . .J 

1844. South Wales disturbed by " Rebecca 1 

Riots" . . .J 

War with Scinde in the East Indies, 
conducted by Sir Charles Napier, 
who was every where victorious 

1 845. Many Concessions made to the Roman 

Catholics, and to the Jews, by the 
British Legislature 

Several bloody Encounters between the 
Sikhs and the British Troops under 
Sir Charles Napier, in the East In- 
dies ; the Sikhs disbanded at Fero- 
zepoor ; an Increase to the British 
Territories. 

A general Failure in the Potato Crop 
Ireland greatly distressed 

1846. The Duties on Corn abolished 
The Queen of Spain married to Don"l 

Francesco D'Assis, Duke of Cadiz . J 



China war 



koy. 



Egy. peace — 

Cabul war r- 

Fire tower kob. 

China open — 



1 



Rail. 


fire 


kod 


Affghs 


. subduec 


— 


Fire 


Ham. 


— 


Engl. 


Ame. 


— 


Fire 


Liver. 


— 


Wilkie dies 


— 


Rebec 




kof 


War 


Scinde 


— 


Concessions 


kol. 



:} 



Batt. Ferozepoor. 

Potato fail. — 

Corn duties kos. 
Span, marri. — 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 297 



A. D. 



A. D. 



1846. The Infanta of Spain married to the , 

Duke de Montpensier . J- Infanta mam. kos. 

A tremendous Hurricane at Trinidad ; | „ . ™ . 

much Damage done . .J ±lum ' lnn * ~~ 

The colossal Statue of the Duke of 1 

Wellington raised at Hyde Park j-Duke exalted — 

Corner . . .1 

A Shock of an Earthquake felt at"! A , 

Perth, in Scotland . # J Scot, quakes - 

Famine and Fever in many parts ofl -r. • -, 

Ireland . . j Famine Ire. — 

1847. Count Leopold Berri died at Padua,"] 
leaving an unique Library, composed I T , , „ . . 
of Works written by Females : f Leo P old Bem k ° P * 
nearly 30,000 volumes . J 



Fire Ger. — 



-Hong Kong — 



Loan 



A very destructive Fire at Wednierode, 

in Germany 
Admiral Davis went with Troops and 

his Fleet from Hong Kong to Can- 
ton, attacked the Bogue Forts, took or 

destroyed 876 Guns, made a Treaty, 

and returned in thirty-six hours 
A Loan of 8,000,000/. contracted for 

the Relief of Ireland 
Subscriptions for the Relief of Distress 

in Ireland, exceeding 500,000/., made 

by all classes in England 
Immense Failures on Stock Exchange."' Failures 
A great Erruption of Mount Vesu-"| 

vius . . \ 

An Insurrection against the Pope,! T 

which lasted three days . j Insurrection 



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